INDIVIDUAL REPORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organizations and Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Associations and Behavior - Essay Example At Tesco the attention is on youngsters and henceforth it takes a gander at giving the chances to the individuals in their working lives. Culture enables the workers to tie them along with their partners, clients and their networks. They target making trust by having a culture which is secured in truth. Tesco have the way of life which is described by an aggregate want to make the best choice. Right culture has helped Tesco steer their business the correct way by they way they serve their partners, clients and networks. In Tesco in the money related part there is a director or a representative who needs to follow the structure of the association. The choices are made by the administration all through the working day and it impacts the structure and practice of every single other worker in the organization. There are both interior and outside components which inspire a representative. The inside variables incorporate correspondence, inspiration while the outer elements incorporate motivations and deals target. Correspondence is critical and is significant for the workers to have the option to practice their right. Further the whistle blowing arrangement at Tesco helps raise moral issues and report complaints. Tesco comprehends the significance of persuaded staff and supports the staff with a work-life balance through adaptable working, markdown rec center participation and so forth. Tesco offers serious pay rates at all the levels and offers an entire bundle in manners that help the workers get more cash-flow, take care of their wellbeing and defend their future. The correspondence of Tesco ought to guarantee that fitting correspondence approaches are set up and work successfully in building and ensuring the notoriety of the Group both inside and remotely. It ought to have an organized interchanges program to give the associates clearness on issues. The Board of chiefs should survey the presentation focuses for the present year and offer honors to workers to guarantee that they stay spurred to the

How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan

How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan Panic Disorder Coping Print How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan By Sheryl Ankrom linkedin Sheryl Ankrom is a clinical professional counselor and nationally certified clinical mental health counselor specializing in anxiety disorders. Learn about our editorial policy Sheryl Ankrom Updated on December 13, 2019 Tom Merton / Caiaimage / Getty Images More in Panic Disorder Coping Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Related Conditions Anger is a powerful feeling that is a normal part of the human experience. Everyone has felt angry at one time or another. Anger itself is not a bad thing. But, if you express your anger in unhealthy ways, it can become a problem. Learning how to develop an anger management plan can help you cope with situations that sometimes lead to increased anxiety and panic symptoms. Its not unusual for people with panic disorder, agoraphobia or another anxiety disorder to experience frustration because of their condition. Sometimes this frustration can develop into anger â€" anger toward yourself, anger at your situation or anger toward others. Anger can intensify your anxiety and worsen your PD symptoms. At its worst, you may experience debilitating and troublesome anger attacks. If your anger is out of control, you may have difficulty maintaining healthy personal or work relationships. There is also evidence that unhealthy expression of anger can be a risk factor for heart disease. Steps for Getting Started on an Anger Management Plan If you have trouble controlling your anger, here are some steps to get you started on an anger management plan: Identify Your Goals and Action Plan Think of your goals in terms of specific behaviors and your reactions. Use a time frame to measure your progress. For example, lets say your first goal is to refrain from verbally attacking your spouse. How will you go about doing this? If you feel yourself getting angry, can you walk away and cool down? How much time do you think it will take you to reach this goal? Dont Play the Blame Game Blaming others will not help you get over your anger. Also, self-blame will only allow feelings of anger and resentment to linger longer than they should. Learn to take responsibility for your anger and your reaction to it when things dont go your way. Learn and Practice Relaxation Techniques Learning and practicing relaxation techniques on a regular basis can help you stay calm. Some examples include: Deep Breathing When people are anxious, they tend to take rapid, shallow breaths that come directly from the chest. This type of breathing is called thoracic or chest breathing. When youre feeling anxious or angry, you may not even be aware that youre breathing this way. Deep breathing can help you calm down and keep your anger from spiraling out of control. Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) Anger can cause a lot of physical sensations, including muscle tension. By using PMR, you can counter these physical changes and sensations to achieve a “relaxation response.” During PMR, your breathing slows and your heart rate and blood pressure decrease. Being in a relaxed state can reduce many of the unpleasant physical effects of your anger. Visualization By using visualization to imagine yourself in a peaceful, stress-free setting, you can reach a state of mental and physical relaxation. For example, imagine yourself sitting by a beautiful, peaceful lake. Focus on the scene for a period of time. Feel the soft sand on the bottom of your feet. As a gentle breeze sweeps across the water, imagine the warm air on your face as you watch a magnificent sunset on the horizon. Mindfulness Meditation Many people find meditation calming and revitalizing. Mindfulness meditation can offer clarity and a sense of peace. You can perform a meditation exercise sitting or lying down. Make sure your surroundings are quiet and dress comfortably. Give it a try by following these steps: Close your eyes and do some deep breathing for several minutes.Concentrate on a single word or object. For example, slowly repeat the word “relax.”If you find your mind wandering during the exercise, just take deep breaths and refocus.Continue the process until you feel calm and refreshed. Get Help and Support If you have trouble expressing anger, talk to a friend, family member or mental health professional. Building a strong support system can allow you to blow off steam in a healthier way: through open communication and trust. You can learn how to constructively express your feelings without letting anger express them for you. Get Support From the 7 Best Online Anger Management Classes

What Is the Political Ideology Behind Communism

Communism is a political ideology that believes that societies can achieve full social equality by eliminating private property. The concept of communism began with German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 1840s  but eventually spread around the world, being adapted for use in the Soviet Union, China, East Germany, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and elsewhere. After World War II, the quick spread of communism was perceived as a threat to capitalist countries and led to the Cold War. By the 1970s, almost a hundred years after Marx’s death, more than one-third of the world’s population lived under some form of communism. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, however, communism has been on the decline. Who Invented Communism? Generally, it is the German philosopher and theorist Karl Marx (1818–1883) who is credited with founding the modern concept of communism. Marx and his friend, German socialist philosopher Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), first laid down the framework for the idea of communism in their seminal work,  The Communist Manifesto (originally published in German in 1848). The philosophy laid out by Marx and Engels has since been termed Marxism, as it differs fundamentally from the various forms of communism that succeeded it. The Concept of Marxism Karl Marx’s views came from his â€Å"materialist† view of history, meaning that he saw the unfolding of historical events as a product of the relationship between the different classes of any given society. The concept of â€Å"class,† in Marx’s view, was determined by whether any individual or group of individuals had access to ​the  property and to the wealth that such property could potentially generate. Traditionally, this concept was defined along very basic lines. In medieval Europe, for example, society was clearly divided between those who owned land and those who worked for those who owned the land. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the class lines now fell between those who owned the factories and those who worked in the factories. Marx called these factory owners the bourgeoisie (French for â€Å"middle class†) and the workers, the proletariat (from a Latin word that described a person with little or no property). Three Class Divisions Marx believed that it was these basic class divisions, dependent on the concept of property, that lead to revolutions and conflicts in societies; thus ultimately determining the direction of historical outcomes. As he stated in the opening paragraph of the first part of The Communist Manifesto: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.* Marx believed that it would be this type of opposition and tension—between the ruling and the working classes—that would eventually reach a boiling point and lead to a socialist revolution. This, in turn, would lead to a system of government in which the large majority of the people, not just a small ruling elite, would dominate. Unfortunately, Marx was vague about what type of political system would materialize after a socialist revolution. He imagined the gradual emergence of a type of egalitarian utopia—communism—that would witness the elimination of elitism and the homogenization of the masses along economic and political lines. Indeed, Marx believed that as this communism emerged, it would gradually eliminate the very need for a state, government, or economic system altogether. The Dictatorship of the Proletariat In the interim, however, Marx felt there would be the need for a type of political system before communism could emerge out of the ashes of a socialist revolution—a temporary and transitional state that would have to be administered by the people themselves. Marx termed this interim system the â€Å"dictatorship of the proletariat.† Marx only mentioned the idea of this interim system a few times  and did not elaborate much further on it, which left the concept open to interpretation by subsequent communist revolutionaries and leaders. Thus, while Marx may have provided the comprehensive framework for the philosophical idea of communism, the ideology changed in subsequent years as leaders like Vladimir Lenin (Leninism), Joseph Stalin (Stalinism), Mao Zedong (Maoism), and others attempted to implement communism as a practical system of governance. Each of these leaders reshaped the fundamental elements of communism to meet their personal power interests or the interests and peculiarities of their respective societies and cultures. Leninism in Russia Russia was to become the first country to implement communism. However, it did not do so with an upsurge of the proletariat as Marx had predicted; instead, it was conducted by a small group of intellectuals led by Vladimir Lenin. After the first Russian Revolution took place in February of 1917 and saw the overthrow of the last of Russia’s czars, the Provisional Government was established. However, the Provisional Government that ruled in the czar’s stead was unable to administer the state’s affairs successfully and came under strong fire from its opponents, among them a very vocal party known as the Bolsheviks (led by Lenin). The Bolsheviks appealed to a large segment of the Russian population, most of them peasants, who had grown weary of World War I and the misery it had brought them. Lenin’s simple slogan of â€Å"Peace, Land, Bread† and the promise of an egalitarian society under the auspices of communism appealed to the population. In October of 1917—with popular support—the Bolsheviks managed to roust the Provisional Government and assume power, becoming the first communist party ever to rule. Holding onto power, on the other hand, proved to be challenging. Between 1917 and 1921, the Bolsheviks lost considerable support amongst the peasantry and even faced heavy opposition from within their own ranks. As a result, the new state clamped down heavily on free speech and political freedom. Opposition parties were banned from 1921 on and party members were not allowed to form opposing political factions amongst themselves. Economically, however, the new regime turned out to be more liberal, at least for as long as Vladimir Lenin remained alive. Small-scale capitalism and private enterprise were encouraged to help the economy recover and thus offset the discontent felt by the population.   Stalinism in the Soviet Union When Lenin died in January of 1924, the ensuing power vacuum further destabilized the regime. The emerging victor of this power struggle was Joseph Stalin, considered by many in the Communist Party (the new name of the Bolsheviks) to be a reconciler—a conciliatory influence who could bring the opposing party factions together. Stalin managed to reignite the enthusiasm felt for the socialist revolution during its first days by appealing to the emotions and patriotism of his countrymen. His style of governing, however, would tell a very different story. Stalin believed that the major powers of the world would try everything they could to oppose a communist regime in the Soviet Union (the new name of Russia). Indeed, the foreign investment needed to rebuild the economy was not forthcoming and Stalin believed he needed to generate the funds for the Soviet Union’s industrialization from within. Stalin turned to collecting surpluses from the peasantry and to foment a more socialist consciousness amongst them by collectivizing farms, thus forcing any individualist farmers to become more collectively oriented. In this way, Stalin believed he could further the state’s success on an ideological level, while also organizing the peasants in a more efficient manner so as to generate the necessary wealth for the industrialization of Russia’s major cities. Crushing Resistance Farmers had other ideas, however. They had originally supported the Bolsheviks due to the promise of land, which they would be able to run individually without interference. Stalin’s collectivization policies now seemed like a breaking of that promise. Furthermore, the new agrarian policies and the collection of surpluses had led to a famine in the countryside. By the 1930s, many of the Soviet Union’s peasants had become deeply anti-communist. Stalin decided to respond to this opposition by using force to coerce farmers into collectives and to quell any political or ideological opposition. This unleashed years of bloodletting known as the â€Å"Great Terror,† during which an estimated 20 million people suffered and died. In reality, Stalin led a totalitarian government, in which he was the dictator with absolute powers. His â€Å"communist† policies did not lead to the egalitarian utopia envisioned by Marx; instead, it led to the mass murder of his own people. Maoism in China Mao Zedong, already proudly nationalist and anti-Western, first became interested in Marxism-Leninism around 1919–1920. Then, when Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek cracked down on Communism in China in 1927, Mao went into hiding. For 20 years, Mao worked on building up a guerrilla army. Contrary to Leninism, which believed a communist revolution needed to be instigated by a small group of intellectuals, Mao believed that China’s huge class of peasants could rise up and start the communist revolution in China. In 1949, with the support of China’s peasants, Mao successfully took over China and made it a communist state. Chinas Great Leap Forward At first, Mao tried to follow Stalinism, but after Stalin’s death, he took his own path. From 1958 to 1960, Mao instigated the highly unsuccessful Great Leap Forward, in which he tried to force the Chinese population into communes in an attempt to jump-start industrialization through such things as backyard furnaces. Mao believed in nationalism and the peasants. Next, worried that China was going in the wrong direction ideologically, Mao ordered the Cultural Revolution in 1966, in which Mao advocated for anti-intellectualism and a return to the revolutionary spirit. The result was terror and anarchy. Although Maoism proved different than Stalinism in many ways, both China and the Soviet Union ended up with dictators who were willing to do anything to stay in power and who held a complete disregard for human rights. Communism Outside Russia and China The global proliferation of communism was thought to be inevitable by its supporters, even though prior to World War II, Mongolia was the only other nation under communist rule besides the Soviet Union. By the end of World War II, however, much of Eastern Europe had fallen under communist rule, primarily due to Stalin’s imposition of puppet regimes in those nations that had lain in the wake of the Soviet army’s advance towards Berlin. Following its defeat in 1945, Germany itself was divided into four occupied zones, eventually being split into West Germany (capitalist) and East Germany (Communist). Even Germany’s capital was split in half, with the Berlin Wall that divided it becoming an icon of the Cold War. East Germany wasn’t the only country that became Communist after World War II. Poland and Bulgaria became Communist in 1945 and 1946, respectively. This was followed shortly by Hungary in 1947 and Czechoslovakia in 1948. Then North Korea became Communist in 1948, Cuba in 1961, Angola and Cambodia in 1975, Vietnam (after the Vietnam War) in 1976, and Ethiopia in 1987. There were others as well. Despite the seeming success of communism, there were starting to be problems within many of these countries. Find out what caused the downfall of communism. Source Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto. (New York, NY: Signet Classic, 1998) 50.

The Romantic And Classic Ages Of European Music - 1015 Words

Music is widely considered to be the least rational of the arts, and thus the one least openly associated with fundamentals of the outside world; all the same, musicians of considerable significance have been both consciously and subconsciously molded by the environment in which they reside and as such they may interpret and bring the world to life in the language of music. The Romantic and Classic ages of European music can be simply put as the period of time between the deaths of Ludwig Van Beethoven in 1827, and that of Gustav Mahler in 1911. Despite this convenient partition, history has never been one to divide itself so precisely. There were certainly early makings of Romanticism well before 1827, and after 1911. So a better time†¦show more content†¦One of the emerging voices of the era was a French composer named Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who, along with his followers, expressed the idea that both progress and science were taking mankind away from their natural roots, and nature had all of the makings of a simpler life. Vivaldi, in the Four Seasons, and Beethoven, in the Pastoral Symphony, also depict nature or natural phenomena as a part of everyday life; depicting it sometimes pleasant, while other times annoying, and even, at times, rather terrifying. In this romantic mentality, nature was viewed as a mysterious and independent, yet awe inspiring force. This new found connection with nature provided a foundation of inspiration, as well as beauty and truth; and is one of the major themes of Romanticism. The form in which Romantic music first visibly manifested itself was through hymn, both voice and piano; these pieces were almost always quite simple, sounding most closely to folk music, and were usually referred to by the name Lied. Further, these songs were usually strictly Strophic, which simply means that they divided into verses which are repeated without variation until the entire song has been sung. Mozart and Beethoven, are two of more famous Composers, who wrote many such Lieder (plural of Lied); which were often lovely works, but in no way represented major

A Fourth Generation Family Business Free Essays

The current team should have a plan in management as the business require focus on key sectors such as administration and finance, customer fulfillment and operations, sales and marketing. Such needs a family member who have skills and passionate about making the family business an asset worth preserving. Senior generations should have transfer plans to the junior generation in the family such that ownership is not lost. We will write a custom essay sample on A Fourth Generation Family Business or any similar topic only for you Order Now This will also help in solving issues such as technical mistakes, planning in some vacuum and the challenge of treating children equitably. Therefore, the current team should eve a plan to specify who is to step into the business, especially in responsibilities such as ownership, management and leadership among others. 2. The management made the decision because they want to solve some particular problem that they either don’t have the time or the expertise to solve. Therefore, consultants will be the best to solve the problem of training and also implement the solutions. Consultants may also help the management team to define the problem they encounter and assist them reach their own conclusion. The involvement of the outside consultants does tot move Grater’s from its roots as a family business. This is because the consultants will be brought in to solve some problem in the business. This will help in the cultivation of harmony. The many skills that come into play in helping the family business involves dealing with the family issue and also dealing with the business issue. 3. I do agree with the Grater’s decision to stop franchising. The main core of GreaterFranchising manufacturing sectors also owes significant risks for the Grater’s, and this is also because the customers will know that it is a franchise. Stopping franchising will also help in having the reputation of the name of Grater’s. It also helps Grater’s management to work and make the product branding and advertising. It allows them also to pursue the nationwide distribution through some large networks of supermarket chains and grocery stores. The Grafters will not have problem s such as the reaction with the stock markets, as they will take actions themselves. How to cite A Fourth Generation Family Business, Essays

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Example

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Increased interaction of elderly and disabled people with web content after the setting up of World Wide Web (WWW) has created problems such as Web Accessibility. With the increase in users of Geographical Information System (GIS), it also started facing the problem of web accessibility issues. The users started interacting with the maps extensively in the recent years which ultimately intensified the web accessibility problems in GIS applications. User interaction content evaluation are helpful in identifying the web accessibility difficulties faced by GIS application users. Web accessibility problems can’t be identified by automated tools or guidelines but users are involved for that purpose. To identify the accessibility problems of users at initial stages, User Centred Approach is used in which users are included in the development process. With the help of user interaction evaluation and content evaluation the author attempts to identify the accessibility issues in GIS applications in this research project. A case study of web based GIS application called MapQuest is undertaken to discover the web accessibility issues pertaining in GIS applications. Another web based GIS application called Google Maps along with MapQuest was evaluated for identifying usability issues. The usability evaluation of aforementioned two GIS application were conducted using special criterion. Different research methodologies such as usability tests, questionnaires etc were carried out on users from different backgrounds. The report concludes with recommending UCD approach especially in development process through which the web based GIS application’s accessibility can be improved and enhanced. We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This research project also suggests ways to improve the usability of GIS applications on the basis of studies conducted. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACTi TABLE OF CONTENTSii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1 1. 1 Problem statement:1 1. 2 Aims:2 1. 3 Objectives:2 1. 4 Resources:3 1. 5 Risk:3 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW4 2. 1 What is GIS? 4 2. 2 Potential of GIS4 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS5 2. 4 Web Accessibility7 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility8 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines8 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation9 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD)10 2. Advantages and disadvantages of UCD13 2. 10 Elements of UCD13 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS14 2. 12 Usability definitions and its role15 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY19 3. 1 Research Process19 3. 2 Literature Review20 3. 3 Experiment21 3. 4 Questionnaires22 3. 5 Interviews23 3. 6 Case study23 CHAPTER 4 EMPIRICAL STUDY25 4. 1 Planning for Web Accessibility Test25 4. 2 Dichotomous method Vs Continuous numerical measurement method25 4. 3 We b Accessibility Guidelines26 4. 4 The need for automatic evaluation27 4. 5 Properties of Good Web Accessibility Metric27 4. Web Accessibility Barrier (WAB)28 4. 7 Construction of plan to evaluate the Web Accessibility of GIS Website MapQuest29 4. 8 Google Maps MapQuest usability testing35 4. 9 Questionnaire36 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS / ANALYSIS37 5. 1 First Evaluation- Standard Review Method:37 5. 2 WAB Score of MapQuest:42 5. 3 Second Evaluation Goal Question Metric Method (GQM)44 5. 4 Over All response of Questionnaire44 5. 5 Role of UCD (User Centred Design) in Accessibility47 5. 5. 1 Interview Results48 5. 6 Section 249 5. 6. 1 Results achieved from usability tests:49 5. 6. List of observation from usability tests51 5. 6. 3 Results from the questionnaires51 5. 6. 4 Comparison of Google MapQuest53 CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS AND VALIDITY STATEMENTS55 SECTION I55 6. 1 Discussion55 6. 1. 1 Perceivable56 6. 1. 2 Operable57 6. 1. 3 Understandable57 6. 1. 4 Robust58 6. 2 User Centred D esign and Accessibility58 6. 2. 1 User Centred Design59 6. 2. 2 User Centred Design and Accessibility Problems59 6. 3 Validity Statement60 6. 3. 1 Credibility60 6. 3. 2 Transferability60 6. 3. 3 Dependability61 6. 3. 4 Confirmability61 6. 4 Section II62 . 4. 1 Effectiveness62 6. 4. 2 Usefulness62 6. 4. 3 User Reaction63 6. 4. 4 Consistency63 6. 4. 5 Architectural and Visual Clarity63 6. 4. 6 Functionality64 6. 5 Validation64 6. 5. 1 Credibility64 6. 5. 2 Transferability65 6. 5. 3 Dependability65 6. 5. 4 Conformability65 6. 6 Selection of Usability Criteria65 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND FUTURE WORK67 7. 1 Conclusion67 7. 2 Suggestions68 7. 2. 1 Suggestions for Google Maps69 7. 2. 2 Suggestions for MapQuest70 7. 3 Future Work71 REFERENCES:72 APPENDIX A80 APPENDIX B86 APPENDIX C94 APPENDIX D96 APPENDIX E98 APPENDIX F100 APPENDIX G101 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Problem statement: In the early days of Geographical Information System (GIS), not much emphasize was put upon how users interact with GIS but only on gathering and presenting more and more geographical data. But today, research on geographical data use is focusing more and more on how users interact with this data (Wilson et al, 2008). When GIS became available on the web, its user base expanded dramatically and now it is not only for geographers or others who know geographical terms but also for naive users. With the expansion of the pool of targeted users with variety of skills and knowledge, there is a need of more user-centred design of GIS. Although great advancements have been made concerning technical aspects and collecting geospatial information, there is a lack of research on human interaction with GIS and behaviour factors (Pick Gray, 2006). There may be two ways to enhance the accessibility of GIS Applications; either teaches the non expert users about GIS or make GIS usable for non experts through user centred design. The first approach to enhance the accessibility has limitations due to the large and rapidly growing number of non expert users and their lack of understanding of GIS terminologies. Yet another issue is that while making GIS more users centred, the true shape and most of the features of GIS should not be compromised. Usability is important concerning the web and if any website has problems like file downloading takes time, no clear navigations and not oriented towards the needs of the users, then users get frustrated and they will not use this website in future (Barnum, 2002). The interface of the web application must be so simple that experienced and non experienced users can easily use it and fulfil their requirements with it. The users are only satisfied when they can achieve their goals in a successful and efficient way. (Dillon, 1994) Usability evaluation has methodologies that help to measure usability aspects in system interfaces and also identify the problems. During the interface design process, Usability evaluation has an important role that includes interactive cycle of designing, prototyping and evaluating (Ivory Hearst, 2001). Usability evaluation methods play an important role in the designing of most GIS applications because usability aspects included in product design give credibility to company and customers are more satisfied with the products. Map applications are nowadays used by many users who have less experience in using the geospatial data, so usability aspects give benefits to the users accessing internet based services which contain easy to use and attractive exploring functions. Usability thus has an important contribution in the development of successful web-based GIS applications (Nivala et al. , 2008). Koua et al. (2006) proposed usability evaluation criteria for GIS applications; this evaluation helps to assess the ability of GIS applications regarding user performance and satisfaction. This evaluation is very important for evaluation of web-based GIS application because many usability issues can be taken care of through usability testing. This dissertation will evaluate and discuss the accessibility and usability issues faced by users with different disabilities, different knowledge and different social environments. It will aim to find out how can user centred design (UCD) be helpful to enhance the accessibility of web based GIS? 1. 2 Aims: The goal of this dissertation is to explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS by elderly and disabled people through user-centred approach, and investigate the end-users requirements by conducting usability test, questionnaires and interviews. 1. 3 Objectives: To explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS through user-centred approach * To study the common problems faced by naive users in using GIS applications * To find out the common design attributes for GIS applications that can be accessible for all types of the users * To prove the importance of the end-users in all phases of software development * To study the UI design of GIS and identify shortcomings that can be tuned to increase the accessibility * To identify the role of UCD design in designing GIS applications which are more accessible to users of all abilities * To identify various usability issues. To explore various web based evaluation techniques. To explore such criteria for usability evaluation that can be especially relevant for web-based GIS applications. These criteria could be in relation to the specific challenges that these applications have, and might be somewhat different than traditional usability criteria, due to the fact that usability evaluation was developed earlier than web-based GIS applications. 1. 4 Resources: The resources needed to complete this dissertation successfully will be Library Services, Internet. Library service will provide access to books, journals, articles to conduct the research required to complete the dissertation. Internet services will also be used extensively for research and also it will be useful for sending questionnaires to the volunteers, and analysing the case studies that will be used in this dissertation. Also ‘EvalAccess 2. 0’ tool which is software and will be used to compare the accessibility of GIS applications. 1. 5 Risk: This dissertation will focus on accessibility and usability issues of disabled people as a whole. Because of time constraint it doesn’t choose limited users from each category of disability. Choosing each category of disability would bring up more concise results. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is organized into three sections. Section 1 discusses the role of Web GIS, the potential of Web based GIS and who are its users. Further, HCI related issues in web based GIS are discussed. Section 2 discusses the evolution of Web Accessibility and the importance of accessibility of web contents. It also researches the guidelines and web standards regarding accessibility made by the international community World Wide Web consortium (W3C). Then the accessibility of web based GIS. In section 3 the overlook of what is User Centred Design, its elements and relevance of User Centred Design and Accessibility is presented. 2. 1 What is GIS? Good science is said to begin with clear definitions; but it is hard to give a clear cut definition of geographical information systems. As a result, different definitions have been proposed with the passage of time depending on the context. So we can define the term geographical information system in a variety of ways and each definition depends upon what we are searching for. The immense in GIS in recent years is due to the advancement in other technologies and fields that correlate and support the GIS system, such as geography and cartography, geo-visualization, computer science, database theory and mathematics field. Ron Abler has defined GIS as â€Å"Not just one but many simultaneous technological revolutions† (Clarke, 2004). So it is clear that GIS is not a new killer-application but it is an essential and innovative application like spreadsheet, database management systems and word processors. Another author, Peter Burrough, has defined GIS as â€Å"A powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes†. Different authors have tried to define GIS in terms of its functionality. So another definition of GIS is â€Å"An automated system for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data†. (Clarke, 2004) 2. 2 Potential of GIS From the above it can be concluded that geographical information systems are known as powerful and integrating tools for managing and analyzing geo spatial data. The merging of the GIS technology with internet has introduced a new area of research referred to as web based GIS, on-line GIS, internet GIS and internet distributed GIS services. As accessibility to the web is easier for every one; web based GIS plays a major role by offering GIS functionality on the web (Kraak, 2004). Initially static maps have been developed then interactive maps with zooming features were introduced and now dynamic maps have been introduced with multiple features to give maximum functionality and accessibility to its users as a virtual communication tool. Web based GIS is still an emerging field and it is a broad area which involves a lot of issues that still need to be researched, such as spatial analysis and modelling, spatial database designing, wireless and mobile services and 3D data access and query. (Dragicevic, 2004) The World Wide Web has also altered the role of maps and makes them more dynamic. The map can be an essential part of the search engine, especially if we are referring to geospatial data. Maps can also play an important role by acting as an interface for geographical and non geographical information on the net. Maps can be helpful in guiding us from location ‘A’ to ‘B’, viewing the arrangement of the landscape, displaying urban plans and show changes occurring in population distributions. Hardware and software developments have made a tremendous change in the scientific and social needs for spatial data and for maps. The web not only presents dynamic data but also gives the user the ability to interact with the system, and there is subsequently a growing demand of the current users for faster and real time access to data. The role of the maps is definitely central in the web based GIS environment. The dynamic and interactive nature of the maps assists the users in solving geo-spatial analysis problems. (Kraak, 2004) 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS The role of GIS is broad and it can act as an information system, support for decision making and may be helpful for emergency management, crises management and earth quake situations. Clarke (2004) quotes that Jack Estes and the late Jeffrey Star has taken GIS as an information system and they defined this as â€Å"An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geo-graphic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatial-referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working with the data†. Based upon the above definition we can say that GIS is an information system that answers the user‘s queries. Whenever it receives a query from the user side, it collects relevant data, filters and sorts that data and then displays it before the user in a relevant form. Thus we can say that a GIS tool gives the solution of generic problems. GIS has proven its importance worldwide and web based GIS technology has shown its advantages in a variety of areas such as planning applications, decision making, management of historical buildings, and e-government etc. Web based GIS fulfils the requirements of e-government by sharing geographical data both within the organization and with the outside world. Geography is in some sense the glue that can integrate the data scattered in different departments and lying at different locations. Web based GIS is the first step in e-government that ensures the sharing of essential information between all the departments in local authority. Thus this technology enhances the internal and external communication, operations, efficiency within the organization and builds up a positive relationship with its citizens and/or visitors. Figure 2. 1 GIS working as glue, integrate scattered data (Stachowicz, 2004) Web based GIS provides centralized and easy access to spatial data for the users. It is the demand of the users for up-to-date, timely and rapid access to the data. Web based GIS fulfil all these requirements and provide dynamic geographical information to the users in an easy and accessible format. Web based maps assist the users in location finding, route finding and quick decision making. 2. 4 Web Accessibility When we talk about accessibility of a web page, it means that the web page should be accessible to almost every one with all abilities. During the start of World Wide Web, pages were more accessible because almost all web pages consisted of text which could be made more accessible with less complexity. With the advancement of web technologies and hence addition of more complexity, it is now difficult to make web pages accessible to all. Web designers started to include images, frames, streaming audio and video and different kinds of applications, which have made web pages full of hurdles for users with disabilities. (Hackett, 2004) The awareness is on rise about user‘s rights about the access of World Wide Web and there is recognition worldwide about the same rights of access to information on Web for people with disabilities. Legislation about the accessibility of web contents in different countries portrays the importance of the issue of making information on web accessible for all. Richards, 2004) Most of the developed countries have built their own guidelines or refined WCAG guidelines to make web contents more accessible. Increasing accessibility of web content is not only beneficial for people with disabilities but also for common users with lower ebb of resources like lower connection speed, lower processing speed. Mynatt (2000) believes as the average age of world population is increasing as a result t here will be increase in the group of senior citizens accessing information on the web. With aging, most people have deprived some of their abilities like focus, resolve images and distinguish colours. So if we look at cost to benefits ratio, it is clearly indicating more benefits than cost. It may increase the cost one to percent to make website accessible but it will result in increase of users by almost twenty percent. Web Accessibility is directed to address different kind of users and accessibility varies depending upon the disability type of the users. The users which could be addressed by Web Accessibility may have the following disabilities * Visual: From intense degree of blindness to low vision and colour blindness all include in this group * Mobility: People feeling difficulty in using input devices particularly mouse due to immobility or loss of control of relevant muscle * Auditory: people feeling difficulty or disability to listen * Cognitive: peoples having difficulty or disability to understand, learn, memorize or giving attention etc. 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility There is general perception that accessibility means web contents should be make accessible to users with disabilities like blind users. The area of web accessibility deals more than this limited view. In broader view Web Accessibility means making web contents available for as many users as possible. The user may range from common user to user with disabilities such as vision, mobility or learning impairment, users having limited network speed, slow processing speed compelling browsers to show text only version of websites and also users with mobile phone and PDAs with limited bandwidth and memory. Jackson, 2003) If we look at the cost benefit equation of making web content accessible we can clearly find this equation giving more benefits than cost by increasing users with substantial effort. For example minor changing of adding ALT tags for images will make large some difference. Advantages of making web contents more accessible can be increased by broadening the definition of â₠¬Ëœwho’ will get gain more access by this adaptation. Elder people are big percent of whole population and if you ignore web accessibility you are simply ignoring large chunk of possible users. Also this portion of population posses more free time and also discretionary spending power. Web contents can be converted into more accessible for adults by making the contents easy to read, reducing cognition and more efficient and easy use of keyboard and mouse. (Richards, 2004) 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines In 1997 the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) was setup by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to define international standards for users with disabilities. The standards are divided into three different groups. . Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2. User Agent Accessibility Guidelines 3. Authoring Tools Accessibility Guidelines WCAG 1. 0 the first version of web content guidelines is mainly for websites with static information. But with advancement in web technology these guidelines are not sufficient to handle the emerging issues related to accessibility of web contents. To meet this challenging situation W3C‘s Web Accessibility Initiative gave a new version of gu idelines namely WCAG 2. 0 (Reid Snow-Weaver, 2008). Since 1997 W3C‘s Web Accessible Initiative is successfully promoting WCAG around the world. Many organizations have taken benefits from these guidelines in changing their web contents into more accessible form. Also there is more inclination now at national level to adopt these guidelines to standardize the web content. (Kelly et al, 2007) 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation Accessibility of web content is evaluated to check the degree of accessibility available to the contents for users of all kinds. There are different methods to evaluate the web accessibility of any web content. Generally web content can be considered accessible if it follows the regulation provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 (Villegas et al, 2009). The guidelines provided by WCAG 2. 0 are divided into different set of check points and every checkpoint is assigned different level according to severity (Freire et al, 2008). One of the web accessibility evaluation methods is to involve user in this evaluation process. The user will interact and explore the real problems relating to accessibility. Strictly adopting the guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG does not guarantee the success. User’s experience is necessary to validate the accessibility of web content. There are some automated tools to evaluate the accessibility of any web content. According to WAI the following documents can be part of evaluation of web accessibility. a) Preliminary Review of web content for Accessibility b) Conformance evaluation of web content for Accessibility c) Involving Users in Web Accessibility Evaluation d) Evaluation of Web content Accessibility through tools. So evaluation of accessibility of any web content depends upon adherence of guidelines and user satisfaction level. In this thesis project we have evaluate accessibility of GIS web content by firstly using tool to check the adherence of guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 and then conduct survey of users with disabilities. 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD) UCD is a broad term and it is defined as the design philosophy or process in which needs, limitations and demands of end users of an interface have been extensively considered in the entire design process. The entire design process revolves around the end users who have core role in the design process. In other words, UCD is a multi-stage problem solving process in which designer not only analyzes how the users interact with the interface but also perform a test to validate their assumptions with respect to user behaviour in real world scenario. The main distinction of UCD from other design philosophies is that UCD optimizes the user interface according to which users feel easiness and want to work rather than bounding the user to change their behaviour according to the design approach. Currently, different UCD models and approaches have been used to design a product and each approach has its own pros and cons. Models assist the software designers in engineering a product for their users. In these models requirement of the users are kept under consideration right from the beginning till to the end of the product cycle. All the following models follow ISO (ISO 13407 model, 1999) standard. These models are as: Cooperative design: This approach evolved in Scandinavia since 1970. End-users are involved very early in the design process. Thus end-user is given a ‘voice’ in the design and development process and ultimately this thing enhances the quality of end results. Cooperative design demands the right set of participants, right location and physical space. It is also essential to create such environment in which all participants can contribute actively to get some meaningful results. (Bodker et al, 2000) Due to cultural difference among users and designers it may be possible that users are unable to understand the language of designers. So for this purpose it is recommended that prototypes such as mock-ups (three dimensional paper based representation) or a paper based outline for web screen shots or other product. Abras et al, 2004) Participatory design: It correlates with the cooperative design in which end users, developers and business representatives work collaboratively. This design model is more beneficial in early stages of design process. This design model gives a lot of advantages such as * Provide equal participation opportunity to technical and non-technical members * Provide the close collaboration between developers and end users * Provide a forum for investigating product related issues. (Gaffney, 1999) Contextual design: Context design also called customer centre design provides the assistance to cross-functional team to reach an agreement on what the customer‘s needs and how to design the product for their customers. Cross-functional team listen the whole story of an interview but confine the concepts and issues related to design problem. Contextual design user says â€Å"When I was coding I was behind a mirror but when I sat together with the user in front of the system, I felt like I was looking through the mirror and becoming aware that there was a human being on the other side†. Holtzblatt, 2001) The term ‘User Centred Design’ was presented by the Donald Norman in 1980s and then this term widely spread after the publication of the book entitled: User-Centred System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction (Norman Draper, 1986). In the book The Psychology of Everyday Things (POET) (Norman, 1988), Norman has further built on UCD concepts. He has proposed four suggestions related to interface design * The interface should be simple enough in order to determine the possible actions at any moment. The things on the interface should be visible. * Current state of the system should be evaluated easily. * Interface provides the natural mappings between the required actions and intentions; between actions and the resulting effect; and between the interpretation of the system state and visible information. According to Donald Norman recommendation, user should be in the centre of the design. Designer should design the interface that assists the users in performing their tasks and users have to put a little effort to learn a system. Small pamphlet should be delivered along with the products but that pamphlets should be understandable. Just to say designer the design of the product should be intuitive is not enough. There are some designs principles that should be adopted to give better outcome. Norman (1988) has recommended seven designs principles that can assist the designers in their task. 1. Utilize the knowledge both in the world and in the head. Build the manual before implementing the design and it should be in understandable format. 2. Structure of the tasks should be simple that giving full control to the user ver tasks. Tasks provide mental aids to the user for easy archival of information. 3. Things should be visible such that if user presses right click (mouse) on an object it exposes its full functionality for the user. 4. Graphics or icons should be used to make the things understandable. 5. Constraints both artificial and natural should be used to restrict the users. 6. After proper error tracking , the error should be displayed before the user in readable and understandable format so that user can perform error recovery. 7. Standardize the action if all else fails to avoid any abnormal action. In short all the work performed by Norman stressed on the exploration of user needs and requirements before designing the product. 2. 9 Advantages and disadvantages of UCD Table 2. 1: Advantages/disadvantages of UCD Advantages Disadvantages 2. 10 Elements of UCD According to Katz-Haas (2004), UCD model have the following four elements. 1. Visibility: Visibility provides the assistance to the user in constructing the mental model about the things. Essential elements such as those that aids in navigation should be highly visible for the user. Visibility is such that user can predict what he can do and what he cannot at a glance. The important information should be made prominent and placed at top place. 2. Accessibility: Accessibility is another element of UCD in which information is made available for the users easily and quickly no matter what the size of the document either it is long or short. Avoid the users from brainstorming to find specific information. Variety of ways have been provided to look into the information such as search function, page no and navigation elements. Chunking’ technique should be used in which information is divided into sections or blocks and relevant information is kept together and organized in a meaningful manner. Bold and italic pattern is used to make the information prominent. 3. Legibility: Text such as text size, font and style should be used that make the information convenient for the readers. It is hard to read such text or information written in ornamental fonts or all in capital letters but making bold and italic to the text can be helpful for the readers. High-figure-ground contrast between text and background can enhance the legibility such as dark text on light ackground. 4. Language: Information should be displayed in short sentences and in simple words instead of using technical terms. Utilize the active voice or verbs for writing information instead of noun strings. 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS Although GIS are dominating in the market and usage of them are increasing but on the side usability of GIS technology is pitiable. Poorly designed GIS user interface can be made usable by arranging the training for them but this solution is not good according to the economic point of view. Relating to GIS user interface it is said â€Å"GIS user interfaces should be designed such that they fulfil user requirements instead of adapting the end-user to a GIS†. Comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the user requirements acts as a prerequisite for the GIS customization and development and it is said â€Å"User requirements are the criteria against which quality of GIS is tested†. Quality of use is also defined and measured like other technical and economical quality aspects. Quality of use is a multi-dimensional concept in which multiple aspects are checked such as robustness, visibility; learn ability, legibility and accessibility. Quality of use should be evaluated during the customization and development phase in order to get rid of the expensive market failures later. The development of GIS is different from other software development processes as GIS user interfaces are very complex and to make them usable it is essential to tailor them to specific user requirements. Mostly users interact with web based GI data and modify the parameters to achieve their desired results on the screen so it is crucial to provide interactive interface between end-users and the GIS. The design principles of UCD may be helpful for creating effective, efficient, innovative and interactive GIS user interfaces. Focus on end-users Iterative design appropriate allocation of functions between end-user and GIS Multidisciplinary design team (European Commission, 2005) 1. Focus on end-users End-users can contribute a lot in the design process of GI user interface by sharing knowledge and experience about GIS domain, tasks, workflows, object