INDIVIDUAL REPORT Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Organizations and Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Associations and Behavior - Essay Example At Tesco the attention is on youngsters and henceforth it takes a gander at giving the chances to the individuals in their working lives. Culture enables the workers to tie them along with their partners, clients and their networks. They target making trust by having a culture which is secured in truth. Tesco have the way of life which is described by an aggregate want to make the best choice. Right culture has helped Tesco steer their business the correct way by they way they serve their partners, clients and networks. In Tesco in the money related part there is a director or a representative who needs to follow the structure of the association. The choices are made by the administration all through the working day and it impacts the structure and practice of every single other worker in the organization. There are both interior and outside components which inspire a representative. The inside variables incorporate correspondence, inspiration while the outer elements incorporate motivations and deals target. Correspondence is critical and is significant for the workers to have the option to practice their right. Further the whistle blowing arrangement at Tesco helps raise moral issues and report complaints. Tesco comprehends the significance of persuaded staff and supports the staff with a work-life balance through adaptable working, markdown rec center participation and so forth. Tesco offers serious pay rates at all the levels and offers an entire bundle in manners that help the workers get more cash-flow, take care of their wellbeing and defend their future. The correspondence of Tesco ought to guarantee that fitting correspondence approaches are set up and work successfully in building and ensuring the notoriety of the Group both inside and remotely. It ought to have an organized interchanges program to give the associates clearness on issues. The Board of chiefs should survey the presentation focuses for the present year and offer honors to workers to guarantee that they stay spurred to the

How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan

How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan Panic Disorder Coping Print How to Develop an Anger Management Control Plan By Sheryl Ankrom linkedin Sheryl Ankrom is a clinical professional counselor and nationally certified clinical mental health counselor specializing in anxiety disorders. Learn about our editorial policy Sheryl Ankrom Updated on December 13, 2019 Tom Merton / Caiaimage / Getty Images More in Panic Disorder Coping Symptoms Diagnosis Treatment Related Conditions Anger is a powerful feeling that is a normal part of the human experience. Everyone has felt angry at one time or another. Anger itself is not a bad thing. But, if you express your anger in unhealthy ways, it can become a problem. Learning how to develop an anger management plan can help you cope with situations that sometimes lead to increased anxiety and panic symptoms. Its not unusual for people with panic disorder, agoraphobia or another anxiety disorder to experience frustration because of their condition. Sometimes this frustration can develop into anger â€" anger toward yourself, anger at your situation or anger toward others. Anger can intensify your anxiety and worsen your PD symptoms. At its worst, you may experience debilitating and troublesome anger attacks. If your anger is out of control, you may have difficulty maintaining healthy personal or work relationships. There is also evidence that unhealthy expression of anger can be a risk factor for heart disease. Steps for Getting Started on an Anger Management Plan If you have trouble controlling your anger, here are some steps to get you started on an anger management plan: Identify Your Goals and Action Plan Think of your goals in terms of specific behaviors and your reactions. Use a time frame to measure your progress. For example, lets say your first goal is to refrain from verbally attacking your spouse. How will you go about doing this? If you feel yourself getting angry, can you walk away and cool down? How much time do you think it will take you to reach this goal? Dont Play the Blame Game Blaming others will not help you get over your anger. Also, self-blame will only allow feelings of anger and resentment to linger longer than they should. Learn to take responsibility for your anger and your reaction to it when things dont go your way. Learn and Practice Relaxation Techniques Learning and practicing relaxation techniques on a regular basis can help you stay calm. Some examples include: Deep Breathing When people are anxious, they tend to take rapid, shallow breaths that come directly from the chest. This type of breathing is called thoracic or chest breathing. When youre feeling anxious or angry, you may not even be aware that youre breathing this way. Deep breathing can help you calm down and keep your anger from spiraling out of control. Progressive Muscle Relaxation (PMR) Anger can cause a lot of physical sensations, including muscle tension. By using PMR, you can counter these physical changes and sensations to achieve a “relaxation response.” During PMR, your breathing slows and your heart rate and blood pressure decrease. Being in a relaxed state can reduce many of the unpleasant physical effects of your anger. Visualization By using visualization to imagine yourself in a peaceful, stress-free setting, you can reach a state of mental and physical relaxation. For example, imagine yourself sitting by a beautiful, peaceful lake. Focus on the scene for a period of time. Feel the soft sand on the bottom of your feet. As a gentle breeze sweeps across the water, imagine the warm air on your face as you watch a magnificent sunset on the horizon. Mindfulness Meditation Many people find meditation calming and revitalizing. Mindfulness meditation can offer clarity and a sense of peace. You can perform a meditation exercise sitting or lying down. Make sure your surroundings are quiet and dress comfortably. Give it a try by following these steps: Close your eyes and do some deep breathing for several minutes.Concentrate on a single word or object. For example, slowly repeat the word “relax.”If you find your mind wandering during the exercise, just take deep breaths and refocus.Continue the process until you feel calm and refreshed. Get Help and Support If you have trouble expressing anger, talk to a friend, family member or mental health professional. Building a strong support system can allow you to blow off steam in a healthier way: through open communication and trust. You can learn how to constructively express your feelings without letting anger express them for you. Get Support From the 7 Best Online Anger Management Classes

What Is the Political Ideology Behind Communism

Communism is a political ideology that believes that societies can achieve full social equality by eliminating private property. The concept of communism began with German philosophers Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 1840s  but eventually spread around the world, being adapted for use in the Soviet Union, China, East Germany, North Korea, Cuba, Vietnam, and elsewhere. After World War II, the quick spread of communism was perceived as a threat to capitalist countries and led to the Cold War. By the 1970s, almost a hundred years after Marx’s death, more than one-third of the world’s population lived under some form of communism. Since the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989, however, communism has been on the decline. Who Invented Communism? Generally, it is the German philosopher and theorist Karl Marx (1818–1883) who is credited with founding the modern concept of communism. Marx and his friend, German socialist philosopher Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), first laid down the framework for the idea of communism in their seminal work,  The Communist Manifesto (originally published in German in 1848). The philosophy laid out by Marx and Engels has since been termed Marxism, as it differs fundamentally from the various forms of communism that succeeded it. The Concept of Marxism Karl Marx’s views came from his â€Å"materialist† view of history, meaning that he saw the unfolding of historical events as a product of the relationship between the different classes of any given society. The concept of â€Å"class,† in Marx’s view, was determined by whether any individual or group of individuals had access to ​the  property and to the wealth that such property could potentially generate. Traditionally, this concept was defined along very basic lines. In medieval Europe, for example, society was clearly divided between those who owned land and those who worked for those who owned the land. With the advent of the Industrial Revolution, the class lines now fell between those who owned the factories and those who worked in the factories. Marx called these factory owners the bourgeoisie (French for â€Å"middle class†) and the workers, the proletariat (from a Latin word that described a person with little or no property). Three Class Divisions Marx believed that it was these basic class divisions, dependent on the concept of property, that lead to revolutions and conflicts in societies; thus ultimately determining the direction of historical outcomes. As he stated in the opening paragraph of the first part of The Communist Manifesto: The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles. Freeman and slave, patrician and plebeian, lord and serf, guild-master and journeyman, in a word, oppressor and oppressed, stood in constant opposition to one another, carried on an uninterrupted, now hidden, now open fight, a fight that each time ended, either in a revolutionary reconstitution of society at large, or in the common ruin of the contending classes.* Marx believed that it would be this type of opposition and tension—between the ruling and the working classes—that would eventually reach a boiling point and lead to a socialist revolution. This, in turn, would lead to a system of government in which the large majority of the people, not just a small ruling elite, would dominate. Unfortunately, Marx was vague about what type of political system would materialize after a socialist revolution. He imagined the gradual emergence of a type of egalitarian utopia—communism—that would witness the elimination of elitism and the homogenization of the masses along economic and political lines. Indeed, Marx believed that as this communism emerged, it would gradually eliminate the very need for a state, government, or economic system altogether. The Dictatorship of the Proletariat In the interim, however, Marx felt there would be the need for a type of political system before communism could emerge out of the ashes of a socialist revolution—a temporary and transitional state that would have to be administered by the people themselves. Marx termed this interim system the â€Å"dictatorship of the proletariat.† Marx only mentioned the idea of this interim system a few times  and did not elaborate much further on it, which left the concept open to interpretation by subsequent communist revolutionaries and leaders. Thus, while Marx may have provided the comprehensive framework for the philosophical idea of communism, the ideology changed in subsequent years as leaders like Vladimir Lenin (Leninism), Joseph Stalin (Stalinism), Mao Zedong (Maoism), and others attempted to implement communism as a practical system of governance. Each of these leaders reshaped the fundamental elements of communism to meet their personal power interests or the interests and peculiarities of their respective societies and cultures. Leninism in Russia Russia was to become the first country to implement communism. However, it did not do so with an upsurge of the proletariat as Marx had predicted; instead, it was conducted by a small group of intellectuals led by Vladimir Lenin. After the first Russian Revolution took place in February of 1917 and saw the overthrow of the last of Russia’s czars, the Provisional Government was established. However, the Provisional Government that ruled in the czar’s stead was unable to administer the state’s affairs successfully and came under strong fire from its opponents, among them a very vocal party known as the Bolsheviks (led by Lenin). The Bolsheviks appealed to a large segment of the Russian population, most of them peasants, who had grown weary of World War I and the misery it had brought them. Lenin’s simple slogan of â€Å"Peace, Land, Bread† and the promise of an egalitarian society under the auspices of communism appealed to the population. In October of 1917—with popular support—the Bolsheviks managed to roust the Provisional Government and assume power, becoming the first communist party ever to rule. Holding onto power, on the other hand, proved to be challenging. Between 1917 and 1921, the Bolsheviks lost considerable support amongst the peasantry and even faced heavy opposition from within their own ranks. As a result, the new state clamped down heavily on free speech and political freedom. Opposition parties were banned from 1921 on and party members were not allowed to form opposing political factions amongst themselves. Economically, however, the new regime turned out to be more liberal, at least for as long as Vladimir Lenin remained alive. Small-scale capitalism and private enterprise were encouraged to help the economy recover and thus offset the discontent felt by the population.   Stalinism in the Soviet Union When Lenin died in January of 1924, the ensuing power vacuum further destabilized the regime. The emerging victor of this power struggle was Joseph Stalin, considered by many in the Communist Party (the new name of the Bolsheviks) to be a reconciler—a conciliatory influence who could bring the opposing party factions together. Stalin managed to reignite the enthusiasm felt for the socialist revolution during its first days by appealing to the emotions and patriotism of his countrymen. His style of governing, however, would tell a very different story. Stalin believed that the major powers of the world would try everything they could to oppose a communist regime in the Soviet Union (the new name of Russia). Indeed, the foreign investment needed to rebuild the economy was not forthcoming and Stalin believed he needed to generate the funds for the Soviet Union’s industrialization from within. Stalin turned to collecting surpluses from the peasantry and to foment a more socialist consciousness amongst them by collectivizing farms, thus forcing any individualist farmers to become more collectively oriented. In this way, Stalin believed he could further the state’s success on an ideological level, while also organizing the peasants in a more efficient manner so as to generate the necessary wealth for the industrialization of Russia’s major cities. Crushing Resistance Farmers had other ideas, however. They had originally supported the Bolsheviks due to the promise of land, which they would be able to run individually without interference. Stalin’s collectivization policies now seemed like a breaking of that promise. Furthermore, the new agrarian policies and the collection of surpluses had led to a famine in the countryside. By the 1930s, many of the Soviet Union’s peasants had become deeply anti-communist. Stalin decided to respond to this opposition by using force to coerce farmers into collectives and to quell any political or ideological opposition. This unleashed years of bloodletting known as the â€Å"Great Terror,† during which an estimated 20 million people suffered and died. In reality, Stalin led a totalitarian government, in which he was the dictator with absolute powers. His â€Å"communist† policies did not lead to the egalitarian utopia envisioned by Marx; instead, it led to the mass murder of his own people. Maoism in China Mao Zedong, already proudly nationalist and anti-Western, first became interested in Marxism-Leninism around 1919–1920. Then, when Chinese leader Chiang Kai-shek cracked down on Communism in China in 1927, Mao went into hiding. For 20 years, Mao worked on building up a guerrilla army. Contrary to Leninism, which believed a communist revolution needed to be instigated by a small group of intellectuals, Mao believed that China’s huge class of peasants could rise up and start the communist revolution in China. In 1949, with the support of China’s peasants, Mao successfully took over China and made it a communist state. Chinas Great Leap Forward At first, Mao tried to follow Stalinism, but after Stalin’s death, he took his own path. From 1958 to 1960, Mao instigated the highly unsuccessful Great Leap Forward, in which he tried to force the Chinese population into communes in an attempt to jump-start industrialization through such things as backyard furnaces. Mao believed in nationalism and the peasants. Next, worried that China was going in the wrong direction ideologically, Mao ordered the Cultural Revolution in 1966, in which Mao advocated for anti-intellectualism and a return to the revolutionary spirit. The result was terror and anarchy. Although Maoism proved different than Stalinism in many ways, both China and the Soviet Union ended up with dictators who were willing to do anything to stay in power and who held a complete disregard for human rights. Communism Outside Russia and China The global proliferation of communism was thought to be inevitable by its supporters, even though prior to World War II, Mongolia was the only other nation under communist rule besides the Soviet Union. By the end of World War II, however, much of Eastern Europe had fallen under communist rule, primarily due to Stalin’s imposition of puppet regimes in those nations that had lain in the wake of the Soviet army’s advance towards Berlin. Following its defeat in 1945, Germany itself was divided into four occupied zones, eventually being split into West Germany (capitalist) and East Germany (Communist). Even Germany’s capital was split in half, with the Berlin Wall that divided it becoming an icon of the Cold War. East Germany wasn’t the only country that became Communist after World War II. Poland and Bulgaria became Communist in 1945 and 1946, respectively. This was followed shortly by Hungary in 1947 and Czechoslovakia in 1948. Then North Korea became Communist in 1948, Cuba in 1961, Angola and Cambodia in 1975, Vietnam (after the Vietnam War) in 1976, and Ethiopia in 1987. There were others as well. Despite the seeming success of communism, there were starting to be problems within many of these countries. Find out what caused the downfall of communism. Source Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, The Communist Manifesto. (New York, NY: Signet Classic, 1998) 50.

The Romantic And Classic Ages Of European Music - 1015 Words

Music is widely considered to be the least rational of the arts, and thus the one least openly associated with fundamentals of the outside world; all the same, musicians of considerable significance have been both consciously and subconsciously molded by the environment in which they reside and as such they may interpret and bring the world to life in the language of music. The Romantic and Classic ages of European music can be simply put as the period of time between the deaths of Ludwig Van Beethoven in 1827, and that of Gustav Mahler in 1911. Despite this convenient partition, history has never been one to divide itself so precisely. There were certainly early makings of Romanticism well before 1827, and after 1911. So a better time†¦show more content†¦One of the emerging voices of the era was a French composer named Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who, along with his followers, expressed the idea that both progress and science were taking mankind away from their natural roots, and nature had all of the makings of a simpler life. Vivaldi, in the Four Seasons, and Beethoven, in the Pastoral Symphony, also depict nature or natural phenomena as a part of everyday life; depicting it sometimes pleasant, while other times annoying, and even, at times, rather terrifying. In this romantic mentality, nature was viewed as a mysterious and independent, yet awe inspiring force. This new found connection with nature provided a foundation of inspiration, as well as beauty and truth; and is one of the major themes of Romanticism. The form in which Romantic music first visibly manifested itself was through hymn, both voice and piano; these pieces were almost always quite simple, sounding most closely to folk music, and were usually referred to by the name Lied. Further, these songs were usually strictly Strophic, which simply means that they divided into verses which are repeated without variation until the entire song has been sung. Mozart and Beethoven, are two of more famous Composers, who wrote many such Lieder (plural of Lied); which were often lovely works, but in no way represented major

A Fourth Generation Family Business Free Essays

The current team should have a plan in management as the business require focus on key sectors such as administration and finance, customer fulfillment and operations, sales and marketing. Such needs a family member who have skills and passionate about making the family business an asset worth preserving. Senior generations should have transfer plans to the junior generation in the family such that ownership is not lost. We will write a custom essay sample on A Fourth Generation Family Business or any similar topic only for you Order Now This will also help in solving issues such as technical mistakes, planning in some vacuum and the challenge of treating children equitably. Therefore, the current team should eve a plan to specify who is to step into the business, especially in responsibilities such as ownership, management and leadership among others. 2. The management made the decision because they want to solve some particular problem that they either don’t have the time or the expertise to solve. Therefore, consultants will be the best to solve the problem of training and also implement the solutions. Consultants may also help the management team to define the problem they encounter and assist them reach their own conclusion. The involvement of the outside consultants does tot move Grater’s from its roots as a family business. This is because the consultants will be brought in to solve some problem in the business. This will help in the cultivation of harmony. The many skills that come into play in helping the family business involves dealing with the family issue and also dealing with the business issue. 3. I do agree with the Grater’s decision to stop franchising. The main core of GreaterFranchising manufacturing sectors also owes significant risks for the Grater’s, and this is also because the customers will know that it is a franchise. Stopping franchising will also help in having the reputation of the name of Grater’s. It also helps Grater’s management to work and make the product branding and advertising. It allows them also to pursue the nationwide distribution through some large networks of supermarket chains and grocery stores. The Grafters will not have problem s such as the reaction with the stock markets, as they will take actions themselves. How to cite A Fourth Generation Family Business, Essays

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Example

The Problems of Web Accessibility Essay Increased interaction of elderly and disabled people with web content after the setting up of World Wide Web (WWW) has created problems such as Web Accessibility. With the increase in users of Geographical Information System (GIS), it also started facing the problem of web accessibility issues. The users started interacting with the maps extensively in the recent years which ultimately intensified the web accessibility problems in GIS applications. User interaction content evaluation are helpful in identifying the web accessibility difficulties faced by GIS application users. Web accessibility problems can’t be identified by automated tools or guidelines but users are involved for that purpose. To identify the accessibility problems of users at initial stages, User Centred Approach is used in which users are included in the development process. With the help of user interaction evaluation and content evaluation the author attempts to identify the accessibility issues in GIS applications in this research project. A case study of web based GIS application called MapQuest is undertaken to discover the web accessibility issues pertaining in GIS applications. Another web based GIS application called Google Maps along with MapQuest was evaluated for identifying usability issues. The usability evaluation of aforementioned two GIS application were conducted using special criterion. Different research methodologies such as usability tests, questionnaires etc were carried out on users from different backgrounds. The report concludes with recommending UCD approach especially in development process through which the web based GIS application’s accessibility can be improved and enhanced. We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Problems of Web Accessibility specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer This research project also suggests ways to improve the usability of GIS applications on the basis of studies conducted. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACTi TABLE OF CONTENTSii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION1 1. 1 Problem statement:1 1. 2 Aims:2 1. 3 Objectives:2 1. 4 Resources:3 1. 5 Risk:3 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW4 2. 1 What is GIS? 4 2. 2 Potential of GIS4 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS5 2. 4 Web Accessibility7 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility8 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines8 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation9 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD)10 2. Advantages and disadvantages of UCD13 2. 10 Elements of UCD13 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS14 2. 12 Usability definitions and its role15 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY19 3. 1 Research Process19 3. 2 Literature Review20 3. 3 Experiment21 3. 4 Questionnaires22 3. 5 Interviews23 3. 6 Case study23 CHAPTER 4 EMPIRICAL STUDY25 4. 1 Planning for Web Accessibility Test25 4. 2 Dichotomous method Vs Continuous numerical measurement method25 4. 3 We b Accessibility Guidelines26 4. 4 The need for automatic evaluation27 4. 5 Properties of Good Web Accessibility Metric27 4. Web Accessibility Barrier (WAB)28 4. 7 Construction of plan to evaluate the Web Accessibility of GIS Website MapQuest29 4. 8 Google Maps MapQuest usability testing35 4. 9 Questionnaire36 CHAPTER 5 RESULTS / ANALYSIS37 5. 1 First Evaluation- Standard Review Method:37 5. 2 WAB Score of MapQuest:42 5. 3 Second Evaluation Goal Question Metric Method (GQM)44 5. 4 Over All response of Questionnaire44 5. 5 Role of UCD (User Centred Design) in Accessibility47 5. 5. 1 Interview Results48 5. 6 Section 249 5. 6. 1 Results achieved from usability tests:49 5. 6. List of observation from usability tests51 5. 6. 3 Results from the questionnaires51 5. 6. 4 Comparison of Google MapQuest53 CHAPTER 6 DISCUSSION/ANALYSIS AND VALIDITY STATEMENTS55 SECTION I55 6. 1 Discussion55 6. 1. 1 Perceivable56 6. 1. 2 Operable57 6. 1. 3 Understandable57 6. 1. 4 Robust58 6. 2 User Centred D esign and Accessibility58 6. 2. 1 User Centred Design59 6. 2. 2 User Centred Design and Accessibility Problems59 6. 3 Validity Statement60 6. 3. 1 Credibility60 6. 3. 2 Transferability60 6. 3. 3 Dependability61 6. 3. 4 Confirmability61 6. 4 Section II62 . 4. 1 Effectiveness62 6. 4. 2 Usefulness62 6. 4. 3 User Reaction63 6. 4. 4 Consistency63 6. 4. 5 Architectural and Visual Clarity63 6. 4. 6 Functionality64 6. 5 Validation64 6. 5. 1 Credibility64 6. 5. 2 Transferability65 6. 5. 3 Dependability65 6. 5. 4 Conformability65 6. 6 Selection of Usability Criteria65 CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSION, SUGGESTIONS AND FUTURE WORK67 7. 1 Conclusion67 7. 2 Suggestions68 7. 2. 1 Suggestions for Google Maps69 7. 2. 2 Suggestions for MapQuest70 7. 3 Future Work71 REFERENCES:72 APPENDIX A80 APPENDIX B86 APPENDIX C94 APPENDIX D96 APPENDIX E98 APPENDIX F100 APPENDIX G101 CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1. 1 Problem statement: In the early days of Geographical Information System (GIS), not much emphasize was put upon how users interact with GIS but only on gathering and presenting more and more geographical data. But today, research on geographical data use is focusing more and more on how users interact with this data (Wilson et al, 2008). When GIS became available on the web, its user base expanded dramatically and now it is not only for geographers or others who know geographical terms but also for naive users. With the expansion of the pool of targeted users with variety of skills and knowledge, there is a need of more user-centred design of GIS. Although great advancements have been made concerning technical aspects and collecting geospatial information, there is a lack of research on human interaction with GIS and behaviour factors (Pick Gray, 2006). There may be two ways to enhance the accessibility of GIS Applications; either teaches the non expert users about GIS or make GIS usable for non experts through user centred design. The first approach to enhance the accessibility has limitations due to the large and rapidly growing number of non expert users and their lack of understanding of GIS terminologies. Yet another issue is that while making GIS more users centred, the true shape and most of the features of GIS should not be compromised. Usability is important concerning the web and if any website has problems like file downloading takes time, no clear navigations and not oriented towards the needs of the users, then users get frustrated and they will not use this website in future (Barnum, 2002). The interface of the web application must be so simple that experienced and non experienced users can easily use it and fulfil their requirements with it. The users are only satisfied when they can achieve their goals in a successful and efficient way. (Dillon, 1994) Usability evaluation has methodologies that help to measure usability aspects in system interfaces and also identify the problems. During the interface design process, Usability evaluation has an important role that includes interactive cycle of designing, prototyping and evaluating (Ivory Hearst, 2001). Usability evaluation methods play an important role in the designing of most GIS applications because usability aspects included in product design give credibility to company and customers are more satisfied with the products. Map applications are nowadays used by many users who have less experience in using the geospatial data, so usability aspects give benefits to the users accessing internet based services which contain easy to use and attractive exploring functions. Usability thus has an important contribution in the development of successful web-based GIS applications (Nivala et al. , 2008). Koua et al. (2006) proposed usability evaluation criteria for GIS applications; this evaluation helps to assess the ability of GIS applications regarding user performance and satisfaction. This evaluation is very important for evaluation of web-based GIS application because many usability issues can be taken care of through usability testing. This dissertation will evaluate and discuss the accessibility and usability issues faced by users with different disabilities, different knowledge and different social environments. It will aim to find out how can user centred design (UCD) be helpful to enhance the accessibility of web based GIS? 1. 2 Aims: The goal of this dissertation is to explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS by elderly and disabled people through user-centred approach, and investigate the end-users requirements by conducting usability test, questionnaires and interviews. 1. 3 Objectives: To explore issues related to the accessibility of GIS through user-centred approach * To study the common problems faced by naive users in using GIS applications * To find out the common design attributes for GIS applications that can be accessible for all types of the users * To prove the importance of the end-users in all phases of software development * To study the UI design of GIS and identify shortcomings that can be tuned to increase the accessibility * To identify the role of UCD design in designing GIS applications which are more accessible to users of all abilities * To identify various usability issues. To explore various web based evaluation techniques. To explore such criteria for usability evaluation that can be especially relevant for web-based GIS applications. These criteria could be in relation to the specific challenges that these applications have, and might be somewhat different than traditional usability criteria, due to the fact that usability evaluation was developed earlier than web-based GIS applications. 1. 4 Resources: The resources needed to complete this dissertation successfully will be Library Services, Internet. Library service will provide access to books, journals, articles to conduct the research required to complete the dissertation. Internet services will also be used extensively for research and also it will be useful for sending questionnaires to the volunteers, and analysing the case studies that will be used in this dissertation. Also ‘EvalAccess 2. 0’ tool which is software and will be used to compare the accessibility of GIS applications. 1. 5 Risk: This dissertation will focus on accessibility and usability issues of disabled people as a whole. Because of time constraint it doesn’t choose limited users from each category of disability. Choosing each category of disability would bring up more concise results. CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter is organized into three sections. Section 1 discusses the role of Web GIS, the potential of Web based GIS and who are its users. Further, HCI related issues in web based GIS are discussed. Section 2 discusses the evolution of Web Accessibility and the importance of accessibility of web contents. It also researches the guidelines and web standards regarding accessibility made by the international community World Wide Web consortium (W3C). Then the accessibility of web based GIS. In section 3 the overlook of what is User Centred Design, its elements and relevance of User Centred Design and Accessibility is presented. 2. 1 What is GIS? Good science is said to begin with clear definitions; but it is hard to give a clear cut definition of geographical information systems. As a result, different definitions have been proposed with the passage of time depending on the context. So we can define the term geographical information system in a variety of ways and each definition depends upon what we are searching for. The immense in GIS in recent years is due to the advancement in other technologies and fields that correlate and support the GIS system, such as geography and cartography, geo-visualization, computer science, database theory and mathematics field. Ron Abler has defined GIS as â€Å"Not just one but many simultaneous technological revolutions† (Clarke, 2004). So it is clear that GIS is not a new killer-application but it is an essential and innovative application like spreadsheet, database management systems and word processors. Another author, Peter Burrough, has defined GIS as â€Å"A powerful set of tools for storing and retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes†. Different authors have tried to define GIS in terms of its functionality. So another definition of GIS is â€Å"An automated system for the capture, storage, retrieval, analysis and display of spatial data†. (Clarke, 2004) 2. 2 Potential of GIS From the above it can be concluded that geographical information systems are known as powerful and integrating tools for managing and analyzing geo spatial data. The merging of the GIS technology with internet has introduced a new area of research referred to as web based GIS, on-line GIS, internet GIS and internet distributed GIS services. As accessibility to the web is easier for every one; web based GIS plays a major role by offering GIS functionality on the web (Kraak, 2004). Initially static maps have been developed then interactive maps with zooming features were introduced and now dynamic maps have been introduced with multiple features to give maximum functionality and accessibility to its users as a virtual communication tool. Web based GIS is still an emerging field and it is a broad area which involves a lot of issues that still need to be researched, such as spatial analysis and modelling, spatial database designing, wireless and mobile services and 3D data access and query. (Dragicevic, 2004) The World Wide Web has also altered the role of maps and makes them more dynamic. The map can be an essential part of the search engine, especially if we are referring to geospatial data. Maps can also play an important role by acting as an interface for geographical and non geographical information on the net. Maps can be helpful in guiding us from location ‘A’ to ‘B’, viewing the arrangement of the landscape, displaying urban plans and show changes occurring in population distributions. Hardware and software developments have made a tremendous change in the scientific and social needs for spatial data and for maps. The web not only presents dynamic data but also gives the user the ability to interact with the system, and there is subsequently a growing demand of the current users for faster and real time access to data. The role of the maps is definitely central in the web based GIS environment. The dynamic and interactive nature of the maps assists the users in solving geo-spatial analysis problems. (Kraak, 2004) 2. 3 Role of GIS/ Web based GIS The role of GIS is broad and it can act as an information system, support for decision making and may be helpful for emergency management, crises management and earth quake situations. Clarke (2004) quotes that Jack Estes and the late Jeffrey Star has taken GIS as an information system and they defined this as â€Å"An information system that is designed to work with data referenced by spatial or geo-graphic coordinates. In other words, a GIS is both a database system with specific capabilities for spatial-referenced data, as well as a set of operations for working with the data†. Based upon the above definition we can say that GIS is an information system that answers the user‘s queries. Whenever it receives a query from the user side, it collects relevant data, filters and sorts that data and then displays it before the user in a relevant form. Thus we can say that a GIS tool gives the solution of generic problems. GIS has proven its importance worldwide and web based GIS technology has shown its advantages in a variety of areas such as planning applications, decision making, management of historical buildings, and e-government etc. Web based GIS fulfils the requirements of e-government by sharing geographical data both within the organization and with the outside world. Geography is in some sense the glue that can integrate the data scattered in different departments and lying at different locations. Web based GIS is the first step in e-government that ensures the sharing of essential information between all the departments in local authority. Thus this technology enhances the internal and external communication, operations, efficiency within the organization and builds up a positive relationship with its citizens and/or visitors. Figure 2. 1 GIS working as glue, integrate scattered data (Stachowicz, 2004) Web based GIS provides centralized and easy access to spatial data for the users. It is the demand of the users for up-to-date, timely and rapid access to the data. Web based GIS fulfil all these requirements and provide dynamic geographical information to the users in an easy and accessible format. Web based maps assist the users in location finding, route finding and quick decision making. 2. 4 Web Accessibility When we talk about accessibility of a web page, it means that the web page should be accessible to almost every one with all abilities. During the start of World Wide Web, pages were more accessible because almost all web pages consisted of text which could be made more accessible with less complexity. With the advancement of web technologies and hence addition of more complexity, it is now difficult to make web pages accessible to all. Web designers started to include images, frames, streaming audio and video and different kinds of applications, which have made web pages full of hurdles for users with disabilities. (Hackett, 2004) The awareness is on rise about user‘s rights about the access of World Wide Web and there is recognition worldwide about the same rights of access to information on Web for people with disabilities. Legislation about the accessibility of web contents in different countries portrays the importance of the issue of making information on web accessible for all. Richards, 2004) Most of the developed countries have built their own guidelines or refined WCAG guidelines to make web contents more accessible. Increasing accessibility of web content is not only beneficial for people with disabilities but also for common users with lower ebb of resources like lower connection speed, lower processing speed. Mynatt (2000) believes as the average age of world population is increasing as a result t here will be increase in the group of senior citizens accessing information on the web. With aging, most people have deprived some of their abilities like focus, resolve images and distinguish colours. So if we look at cost to benefits ratio, it is clearly indicating more benefits than cost. It may increase the cost one to percent to make website accessible but it will result in increase of users by almost twenty percent. Web Accessibility is directed to address different kind of users and accessibility varies depending upon the disability type of the users. The users which could be addressed by Web Accessibility may have the following disabilities * Visual: From intense degree of blindness to low vision and colour blindness all include in this group * Mobility: People feeling difficulty in using input devices particularly mouse due to immobility or loss of control of relevant muscle * Auditory: people feeling difficulty or disability to listen * Cognitive: peoples having difficulty or disability to understand, learn, memorize or giving attention etc. 2. 5 Importance of Web Accessibility There is general perception that accessibility means web contents should be make accessible to users with disabilities like blind users. The area of web accessibility deals more than this limited view. In broader view Web Accessibility means making web contents available for as many users as possible. The user may range from common user to user with disabilities such as vision, mobility or learning impairment, users having limited network speed, slow processing speed compelling browsers to show text only version of websites and also users with mobile phone and PDAs with limited bandwidth and memory. Jackson, 2003) If we look at the cost benefit equation of making web content accessible we can clearly find this equation giving more benefits than cost by increasing users with substantial effort. For example minor changing of adding ALT tags for images will make large some difference. Advantages of making web contents more accessible can be increased by broadening the definition of â₠¬Ëœwho’ will get gain more access by this adaptation. Elder people are big percent of whole population and if you ignore web accessibility you are simply ignoring large chunk of possible users. Also this portion of population posses more free time and also discretionary spending power. Web contents can be converted into more accessible for adults by making the contents easy to read, reducing cognition and more efficient and easy use of keyboard and mouse. (Richards, 2004) 2. 6 Web Accessibility Guidelines In 1997 the Web Accessibility Initiative (WAI) was setup by World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) to define international standards for users with disabilities. The standards are divided into three different groups. . Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 2. User Agent Accessibility Guidelines 3. Authoring Tools Accessibility Guidelines WCAG 1. 0 the first version of web content guidelines is mainly for websites with static information. But with advancement in web technology these guidelines are not sufficient to handle the emerging issues related to accessibility of web contents. To meet this challenging situation W3C‘s Web Accessibility Initiative gave a new version of gu idelines namely WCAG 2. 0 (Reid Snow-Weaver, 2008). Since 1997 W3C‘s Web Accessible Initiative is successfully promoting WCAG around the world. Many organizations have taken benefits from these guidelines in changing their web contents into more accessible form. Also there is more inclination now at national level to adopt these guidelines to standardize the web content. (Kelly et al, 2007) 2. 7 Web Accessibility Evaluation Accessibility of web content is evaluated to check the degree of accessibility available to the contents for users of all kinds. There are different methods to evaluate the web accessibility of any web content. Generally web content can be considered accessible if it follows the regulation provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 (Villegas et al, 2009). The guidelines provided by WCAG 2. 0 are divided into different set of check points and every checkpoint is assigned different level according to severity (Freire et al, 2008). One of the web accessibility evaluation methods is to involve user in this evaluation process. The user will interact and explore the real problems relating to accessibility. Strictly adopting the guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG does not guarantee the success. User’s experience is necessary to validate the accessibility of web content. There are some automated tools to evaluate the accessibility of any web content. According to WAI the following documents can be part of evaluation of web accessibility. a) Preliminary Review of web content for Accessibility b) Conformance evaluation of web content for Accessibility c) Involving Users in Web Accessibility Evaluation d) Evaluation of Web content Accessibility through tools. So evaluation of accessibility of any web content depends upon adherence of guidelines and user satisfaction level. In this thesis project we have evaluate accessibility of GIS web content by firstly using tool to check the adherence of guidelines provided by WAI‘s WCAG 2. 0 and then conduct survey of users with disabilities. 2. 8 What is User Centred Design (UCD) UCD is a broad term and it is defined as the design philosophy or process in which needs, limitations and demands of end users of an interface have been extensively considered in the entire design process. The entire design process revolves around the end users who have core role in the design process. In other words, UCD is a multi-stage problem solving process in which designer not only analyzes how the users interact with the interface but also perform a test to validate their assumptions with respect to user behaviour in real world scenario. The main distinction of UCD from other design philosophies is that UCD optimizes the user interface according to which users feel easiness and want to work rather than bounding the user to change their behaviour according to the design approach. Currently, different UCD models and approaches have been used to design a product and each approach has its own pros and cons. Models assist the software designers in engineering a product for their users. In these models requirement of the users are kept under consideration right from the beginning till to the end of the product cycle. All the following models follow ISO (ISO 13407 model, 1999) standard. These models are as: Cooperative design: This approach evolved in Scandinavia since 1970. End-users are involved very early in the design process. Thus end-user is given a ‘voice’ in the design and development process and ultimately this thing enhances the quality of end results. Cooperative design demands the right set of participants, right location and physical space. It is also essential to create such environment in which all participants can contribute actively to get some meaningful results. (Bodker et al, 2000) Due to cultural difference among users and designers it may be possible that users are unable to understand the language of designers. So for this purpose it is recommended that prototypes such as mock-ups (three dimensional paper based representation) or a paper based outline for web screen shots or other product. Abras et al, 2004) Participatory design: It correlates with the cooperative design in which end users, developers and business representatives work collaboratively. This design model is more beneficial in early stages of design process. This design model gives a lot of advantages such as * Provide equal participation opportunity to technical and non-technical members * Provide the close collaboration between developers and end users * Provide a forum for investigating product related issues. (Gaffney, 1999) Contextual design: Context design also called customer centre design provides the assistance to cross-functional team to reach an agreement on what the customer‘s needs and how to design the product for their customers. Cross-functional team listen the whole story of an interview but confine the concepts and issues related to design problem. Contextual design user says â€Å"When I was coding I was behind a mirror but when I sat together with the user in front of the system, I felt like I was looking through the mirror and becoming aware that there was a human being on the other side†. Holtzblatt, 2001) The term ‘User Centred Design’ was presented by the Donald Norman in 1980s and then this term widely spread after the publication of the book entitled: User-Centred System Design: New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction (Norman Draper, 1986). In the book The Psychology of Everyday Things (POET) (Norman, 1988), Norman has further built on UCD concepts. He has proposed four suggestions related to interface design * The interface should be simple enough in order to determine the possible actions at any moment. The things on the interface should be visible. * Current state of the system should be evaluated easily. * Interface provides the natural mappings between the required actions and intentions; between actions and the resulting effect; and between the interpretation of the system state and visible information. According to Donald Norman recommendation, user should be in the centre of the design. Designer should design the interface that assists the users in performing their tasks and users have to put a little effort to learn a system. Small pamphlet should be delivered along with the products but that pamphlets should be understandable. Just to say designer the design of the product should be intuitive is not enough. There are some designs principles that should be adopted to give better outcome. Norman (1988) has recommended seven designs principles that can assist the designers in their task. 1. Utilize the knowledge both in the world and in the head. Build the manual before implementing the design and it should be in understandable format. 2. Structure of the tasks should be simple that giving full control to the user ver tasks. Tasks provide mental aids to the user for easy archival of information. 3. Things should be visible such that if user presses right click (mouse) on an object it exposes its full functionality for the user. 4. Graphics or icons should be used to make the things understandable. 5. Constraints both artificial and natural should be used to restrict the users. 6. After proper error tracking , the error should be displayed before the user in readable and understandable format so that user can perform error recovery. 7. Standardize the action if all else fails to avoid any abnormal action. In short all the work performed by Norman stressed on the exploration of user needs and requirements before designing the product. 2. 9 Advantages and disadvantages of UCD Table 2. 1: Advantages/disadvantages of UCD Advantages Disadvantages 2. 10 Elements of UCD According to Katz-Haas (2004), UCD model have the following four elements. 1. Visibility: Visibility provides the assistance to the user in constructing the mental model about the things. Essential elements such as those that aids in navigation should be highly visible for the user. Visibility is such that user can predict what he can do and what he cannot at a glance. The important information should be made prominent and placed at top place. 2. Accessibility: Accessibility is another element of UCD in which information is made available for the users easily and quickly no matter what the size of the document either it is long or short. Avoid the users from brainstorming to find specific information. Variety of ways have been provided to look into the information such as search function, page no and navigation elements. Chunking’ technique should be used in which information is divided into sections or blocks and relevant information is kept together and organized in a meaningful manner. Bold and italic pattern is used to make the information prominent. 3. Legibility: Text such as text size, font and style should be used that make the information convenient for the readers. It is hard to read such text or information written in ornamental fonts or all in capital letters but making bold and italic to the text can be helpful for the readers. High-figure-ground contrast between text and background can enhance the legibility such as dark text on light ackground. 4. Language: Information should be displayed in short sentences and in simple words instead of using technical terms. Utilize the active voice or verbs for writing information instead of noun strings. 2. 11 UCD and Web based GIS Although GIS are dominating in the market and usage of them are increasing but on the side usability of GIS technology is pitiable. Poorly designed GIS user interface can be made usable by arranging the training for them but this solution is not good according to the economic point of view. Relating to GIS user interface it is said â€Å"GIS user interfaces should be designed such that they fulfil user requirements instead of adapting the end-user to a GIS†. Comprehensive and accurate knowledge of the user requirements acts as a prerequisite for the GIS customization and development and it is said â€Å"User requirements are the criteria against which quality of GIS is tested†. Quality of use is also defined and measured like other technical and economical quality aspects. Quality of use is a multi-dimensional concept in which multiple aspects are checked such as robustness, visibility; learn ability, legibility and accessibility. Quality of use should be evaluated during the customization and development phase in order to get rid of the expensive market failures later. The development of GIS is different from other software development processes as GIS user interfaces are very complex and to make them usable it is essential to tailor them to specific user requirements. Mostly users interact with web based GI data and modify the parameters to achieve their desired results on the screen so it is crucial to provide interactive interface between end-users and the GIS. The design principles of UCD may be helpful for creating effective, efficient, innovative and interactive GIS user interfaces. Focus on end-users Iterative design appropriate allocation of functions between end-user and GIS Multidisciplinary design team (European Commission, 2005) 1. Focus on end-users End-users can contribute a lot in the design process of GI user interface by sharing knowledge and experience about GIS domain, tasks, workflows, object

PCBs and the enviroment essays

PCB's and the enviroment essays Life is a precious element to a broad range of creatures. When a chemical toxin invades life's environment, we should all be concerned. Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are a group of chemical compounds that are invading and polluting the environment. They cause severe health problems in humans and affect many creatures in nature. Scientist found high PCB levels in two orca whales that washed up dead last February near the Strait of Juan de Fuca (Ko, 2002). The United States Environmental Protection Agency claims they are quick to act on all PCB discoveries, but it may be too late. There are some remedies to remove PCBs from the environment, but it doesn't take care of the entire problem. Polychlorinated biphenyls are a group of chemicals compounds that have no molecular breakdown. They were used by the industrial manufacturing industry between 1930-1970. They were primarily used as electrical insulators in transformers and other electrical equipment. They were also used in a variety of products such as: power saws, typewriters, cereal boxes, and bread wrappers (Heimlich, 2002). They were released into the environment during their use by smokestacks, leakage of old equipment, leaching from landfills, and other polluted sediments. In 1976 after growing concerns and findings of high levels of PCBs in the environment; Congress banned all uses including the processing and distribution of PCBs (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency [EPA], 2002). These chemicals have filtered into every aspect of the environment. It has seeped into the soil and been carried down streams into our oceans. The toxic effects of PCBs include the death of animals, low growth rate in plants, and severe health problems in humans (Heimlich, 2002). According to an EPA study that was completed in 1987; chronic exposure to PCBs can cause cancer (EPA, 2002). It can also affect the reproductive system, immune system, and the nervous system. Ther...

Curbs and Sidewalks

Curbs and Sidewalks Curbs and Sidewalks Curbs and Sidewalks By Maeve Maddox Rod poses the question: In Spanish the words curb and sidewalk are interchangeable. Is it the same in English?    In U.S. English, the word sidewalk refers to a paved footpath alongside a street or a road. The sidewalk is usually raised above the level of the road. The curb is a stone or concrete edging between the road and the sidewalk. In British usage, curb is spelled kerb. What Americans call a sidewalk, British speakers call the pavement. Merchants that Americans call street vendors or sidewalk vendors are called kerb-merchants or kerb-vendors by British speakers. Curious about the alleged lack of distinction between sidewalk and curb in Spanish, I looked the words up in my New World Spanish Dictionary and found the following: acera: sidewalk; Mexican banqueta encintado: curb (of a sidewalk) bordillo:curb borde de acera: curb Comments from Spanish speakers welcome. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Beautiful and Ugly WordsHow to Punctuate with â€Å"However†Capitalizing Titles of People and Groups

History of Urban Setting Schools in the United States Essay

History of Urban Setting Schools in the United States - Essay Example This essay discusses that quality education is important to students and a nation as well. When students excel in their academics, they have a chance of excelling in the job market as well. In the United States, the education sector has been a major priority, with numerous of reforms being implemented to improve students’ performance. Urban schools in the United States are located in the urban areas, with relatively high rates of poverty and mostly comprising students with limited English proficiency, therefore regarded as high need. The urban schools were formed with an aim of accommodating children from low income families. The ‘No Child Left Behind Act’ was implemented with an aim of improving performance of students especially in urban schools. In addition, the Act was implemented by former president Bush in 2002 with an aim of improving students’ performance, hence assisting them to succeed in the future. This paper discusses the history of urban schoo l setting in the United States, its crisis and the â€Å"No Child Left Behind Act† and its repercussions in depth. According to Gaskell, in the early years, wealth was accumulated by a limited number of individuals, and as a result, poverty levels in the urban areas increased significantly. The urban population in the United States increased as well, resulting into many differences, such as racism and inequality. The funding of schools between the wealthy and the poor districts faced inequality. The urban schools in the United States have over the years faced a declining level of test scores and high rates of violence. According to Stark (2011), urban schools in the 1800s were started with an aim of providing immigrant parents with affordable places for their children to stay during the day as they worked in mills, factories, or shops. By 1920, the urban schools served the middle-class clients who aimed for white-collar jobs; however, by the late 1920s, the working class†™s children had flooded the urban schools, hence changing their status due to financial constraints. Today, there is a sense of hopelessness in the urban schools, contributing to high levels of dropouts. According to Kincheloe (2006, p.95), teaching and learning practices in such schools do not value or encourage students’ performance. DSA (2012) adds that, quality education is a human right for all American students, and therefore, fairness and equality should be observed in the urban schools. Urban schools compromise of children from poor backgrounds; they amount to 11.5 million who live below the average poverty line, attending poverty-stricken schools, and lack computers and decent learning facilities. The urban schools force children to learn in unfriendly environment, which lack air conditioning. Moreover, urban schools record a high level of dropouts, especially among African American students. The performance of these schools in alarming, and this is an issue that n eeds to be addressed. No Child Left Behind Act A report of 1983 indicated that, there was a risk in the education sector, as 13% of 17-year olds on the country were considered illiterate, with scores in mathematics, physics, and English deteriorating (Jorgensen & Hoffmann, 2003, p.2). The rate of remedial classes in mathematics had increased by 72%; in addition, the school curriculum was of low quality, therefore of less benefit. The declining level of homework was also noted in the report, with less mathematics and science courses enrollment. The time students spent on schoolwork was much less; the schools’ administration did not encourage students to develop the required study skills such as time management, and emphasis on schoolwork (Jorgensen & Hoffmann, 2003, p.3). The 1983 report also indicated that, the teaching programs needed improvement; there was also shortage in the number of

German of germany Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

German of germany - Essay Example entered the prison cells and examined their design and tried to analyze how the cells functioned to make the prisoners unable to flee yet were assured a healthy environment despite their number. Throughout the video, the ideas of the interviewer had been largely expressed in a preconceived manner. It is true that Cole presented facts about the concentration camps as he showed the evidences, sometimes showing a fair outlook by acknowledging information about the camp made popular by the holocaust survivors. However, those acknowledgments were pretty harmless to the preconceived beliefs he was trying to prove. He seemed to have carefully drafted the documentary in favor of the German version of the holocaust story and also seemed quite anxious to mention he is a Jew but an atheist, wearing his kippah to prove that he is not some revisionist or the like. His efforts nevertheless, do not prove his reliability rather it is his words that expose his intentions. Cole said he wanted to uncover what really happened during the holocaust but he seemed only to be proving what he believed in, that the testimonies of the survivors are not true. Evidences can be destroyed and altered and with the time that passed, no one can really know the truth except those who witnessed the

Dames, Coppers, and Crooks: A L:ook At Film Noir Essay -- essays resea

Dames, Coppers, and Crooks: A Look At Film Noir   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Film noir is a style of black and white American films that first evolved in the 1940s, became prominent in the post-war era, and lasted in a classic â€Å"Golden Age† period until about 1960. Frank Nino, a French film critic, first coined the label film noir, which literally means black film or cinema, in 1946. Nino noticed the trend of how â€Å"dark† and black the looks and themes were of many American crime and detective films released in France following World War II. In fact, only French critics used the term film noir in their work until the era of noir was over. The French label did not become widely known until the 1970s. The term film noir is now a more familiar term and it is used more often.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There are many historical factors that influenced the creation of film noir. During the 1930s, American was struggling with the Great Depression. There was widespread unemployment. The country also led an isolationist political belief, had beliefs of lasting world peace and pledged neutrality. They also had a very small standing army. America had all of these beliefs as they entered World War II.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The United States emerged as the one great victor of the war. The war had devastated Europe and shattered Asia. America, however, had not had any major warfare on its own territory, and during the war it had managed to leap out of the depression and reach almost full employment for it’s inhabitants. America also had the world’s largest military force and the world’s most threatening weapon. The country now had interests and responsibilities all over the world, but especially in Europe. As the Americans emerged from the war, they were elated and proud, happy of their victory and proud of their military and industrial might.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The 1940s and 50s were an era of economic boom, partly upheld by military demands during and after WWII, and partly by the Americans new consumer demands. Most people wanted newer and better things, which they now could also afford. It was at this time that the G.I. Bill of Rights was created. This bill was a veteran funding system that led to an increase in both college education and the founding of the suburban homes of the 50s. This was a kind of social revolution with consequences lik... ...d by them and the film noir is generally very closely connected with the 1940s Hollywood. This particular criticism of noir as a genre relies upon whether one regards the more recent films as a continuation of the noir tradition or not. Furthermore, film noir tends to cross traditional genre boundaries. There are noir westerns, gangster films and comedies to mention some. Other critics avoid these problems by viewing film noir not as a genre, but by emphasizing the stylistic elements. Here, tone and mood are given considerable weight. Maybe it would be best to simply state that all of the above describe some aspects of what one can call the film noir phenomenon. Works Consulted The Development of Post-war Literary and Cinematic Noir. 29 Jan 2005 http://www.crimeculture.com/Contents/Film%20Noir.html. Dirks, Tim. Film Noir. 29 Jan 2005 http://www.filmsite.org/filmnoir.html. Hordnes, Lise. Does Film Noir mirror the culture of contemporary America?. 6 Mar 2003. 29 Jan 2005 http://odur.let.rug.nl/~usa/E/noir/noir01.html. Horsley, Lee. Thriller (Noir), 1930-. 20 Oct 2001. The Literary Encyclopedia. 29 Jan 2005 http://www.litencyc.com/php/stopics.php?rec=true&UID=11251.html.

Aspect Of Contract And Negligence For Business

Abstract This paper is focused on providing information about important principles of contract and negligence for business. The first part of the paper discusses the specificity of contract law by emphasising details from two case studies: East Midlands Airways Airbus and a case of the supply of mobile phones. The second part of the paper provides information about principles of tort law, as initially liability in tort is contrasted with contractual liability. The emphasis in the second part is on negligence for business, with reference to the case study of King’s Restaurant and a case involving Angelina and Christian Auctioneers.IntroductionIn the area of law, numerous aspects should be given importance. The issue of contract and negligence for business has received substantial attention in the field of legal practice. This paper is divided into two major parts covering issues from contract law and tort law (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In the first part of the paper, the focus is on ide ntifying major elements for the formation of a valid contract as well as assessing the impacts of different types of contracts. There are two main case studies involved, respectively East Midlands Airways Airbus and the supply of mobile phones. In the part on tort law, liability in tort is contrasted with contractual liability through providing relevant examples from a case study of King’s Restaurant and a case of Angelina and Christian Auctioneers (Horsey and Rackley, 2011).Contract LawLegal ElementsIn the case study of East Midlands Airways (EMA) Airbus, it is important to identify essential legal elements for the formation of a valid contract. There are certain major elements that indicate the legal bonding of the contract. They should be thoroughly considered as part of contributing to the validity of the contract (Poole, 2012). The first legal element refers to the inclusion of an offer, which indicates one’s willingness to enter into a specific bargain. In this c ase, an offer is made by Phil, the Chief Executive Officer of Zulu Aviation Ltd. Another important legal element for the formation of a valid contract is associated with acceptance, which should indicate an agreement to the terms initially made. Phil’s offer of ?100,000 for reserving the Airbus 321 has been accepted by Joseph, EMA’s Managing Director. The third significant legal element showing the validity of the discussed contract is the availability of a legal purpose (Knapp et al., 2012). It is clear that the contract’s purpose is legal because it is based on the sale of a second-hand Airbus 321. Furthermore, mutuality of obligation presents a situation in which both parties ensure mutual understanding to the expression and form of their agreement. In other words, a common expectation is that the parties need to agree to the same thing, which is described in the same manner, and at the same time. These legal conditions have been met by both Phil and Joseph. Consideration indicates another essential element for the formation of a valid contract (Poole, 2012). Legal binding needs to be supported by valuable and realistic consideration. In the case study of EMA, Phil ensures his consideration by claiming that he will pay ?100,000 to EMA if the latter promises not to sell the Airbus 321 to another buyer for the period of five days. The importance of these components reflects in the validity and legality of the contract to be established, and if any of these conditions are non-present, it is virtually impossible to form a valid contract (Knapp et al., 2012).Impacts of Different Ty pes of ContractWhen discussing the specificity and implications of contract law, it is important to consider the impacts of different types of contract, such as bilateral and unilateral contracts, express and implied contracts, void and voidable contracts, and distance selling contracts (Hillman, 2004). Bilateral contracts are commonly used in daily life, as they represent an agreement between at least two individuals or groups. Unilateral contracts are associated with an action undertaken by one individual or group alone, as this type of contract allows only one individual to involve in making a specific promise or agreement (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In express contracts, a promise is stated in a clear language, while in implied contracts, the focus is on presenting behaviours or actions which lead parties to believe that a certain agreement exists (Hillman, 2004). Void contracts are contracts that cannot be enforced by either party. According to law, void contracts are perceived as if they had never been established. The main aspect of void contracts refers to a situation where one of the parties performs in an illegal manner (Hillman, 2004). Therefore, void contracts cannot be conducted under the law. An example of void contracts can be found in Dickinson v Dodds [1876], where there is only an offer made and was intended to be an offer solely because it did not result in any legally binding agreement. There was no consideration ensured or promise and thus was judged non-binding. Although in the case of Shuey v US [1875] the revocation is prominent as the offer is, the type of offer is considered non-binding. On the other hand, voidable contracts are based on enforcement and hence they are valid (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). In general, only one of the parties is legally bound to such contracts. Yet, the unbound party has the right to cancel the contract and thus the contract automatically becomes void (Knapp et al., 2012). This implies that voidable contracts represent valid, legal agreements. Distance selling contracts refer to the main responsibility assumed under the law to protect consumers while they conduct shopping activities online. Such regulations also occur in situations where consumers enter into other contracts, as they are at a distance from the supplier (Hillman, 2004). Special protection is ensured to customers on the basis that they are unable to meet directly with the supplier and check the quality of goods and services that are offered for sale. Distance selling regulations have been enforced in the UK since 2000, but it is essential to note that they are inapplicable to contracts between businesses (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). The main legal effect of these regulations is that they enable consumers with the right to receive accurate and proper information about the supplier, including the products and services that are provided for sale. In addition, consumers tend to receive a written confirmation of such information, which makes the regulations credible . There is also a cancellation period of seven working days in which consumers have the right to withdraw from the contract. Individuals receive protection from different forms of fraud associated with the option of using payment cards (Knapp et al., 2012).Case Study of EMAIn the case study of EMA, the focus is on determining whether the two parties have formed a valid, legal contract. As previously mentioned, the parties applied each of the essential legal elements for a valid contract, including offer, acceptance, legal purpose, mutuality of obligation, and valuable consideration. The terms of the contract between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd are clearly specified. However, it can be argued that the type of contract presented by the two parties is express considering that the promise for forming a legally binding agreement has been stated in a clear language verbally, via phone (Poole, 2012). Despite the precise form of the binding procedure, the validity of such express contract is apparent. There are strictly claimed promises on the behalf of both sides: the first party needs to pay a particular amount of money to guarantee the sale of the Airbus 321; the other needs to keep his promise not to sell the Airbus 321 to another buyer for the next five days. It can be concluded that such initial conditions of forming a legal contract have been met (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Simply put, there is an offer followed by an acceptance by EMA’s Managing Director. An example of the complex transaction that took place between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd can be found in the case of Byrne v. Van Tienhoven (1880), which presents relevant inferences on the issue of revocation with regards to the postal rule. In the case of EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd, the phone rule (considering the phone conversation between Phil and Joseph) may not apply in revocation. In other words, while a phone conversation to arrange a contract may simply indicate a valid acceptance, it is most lik ely that the court will rule that it does not count as proper and valid revocation (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Moreover, there is a stated legal purpose that legally binds both parties to form a valid agreement. They are focused on keeping their promise, which is an initial requirement for the establishment of a legal contract. It can be indicated that the objective of the contract between EMA and Zulu Aviation Ltd is to achieve a legal purpose. Thus, the condition of a creating a purpose for the existence of a binding contract has been applied in the case (Poole, 2012). The mutuality of obligation is also evident considering the motifs and promises ensured by both sides. There is a strong sense of mutual understanding on the behalf of each party regarding the expression and specificity of their agreement. In addition, there is an objective standard being applied in the case in terms of determining what the parties have precisely said in the process of forming their agreement (Knapp et al., 2012). The fact that the offer is clear and definite is indicative of both parties’ acceptance o f the terms outlined in the offer. There is a valuable consideration illustrated in the statement of Phil, who is ready to pay ?100,000 in case EMA’s Managing Director fulfils his promise. Therefore, this case study illustrates the application of an express contract law (MacMillan and Stone 2012).Implications regarding the Supply of Mobile PhonesThe only specified term in the contract between Key Services Enterprise (KSE) Ltd and Unique Mobile Solutions (UMS) Ltd is that of the provision of 500 mobile telephones, which are suitable for use in the UK. The court will classify these types of contractual terms as intermediate or innominate terms (Poole, 2012). The status of these terms is not clearly defined, as their significance lies between a condition and a warranty. Innominate terms were established in the case of HK Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962], where the defendants chartered a ship for the duration of two years from the plaintiffs. In the agreement establish ed between the two parties, there was a specific clause indicating that the ship was suitable for performing cargo service. Due to problems with the engine, 20 weeks of the charter were lost and thus the defendants were entitled to bring an action for damages for breach of contract on the grounds of the clause specified in the agreement (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Under the circumstance that the use of the telephones supplied was illegal in the UK, and they could not be modified to make their use legal, the court will classify this term as misrepresentation or a false statement made by the mobile phone seller regarding the use of the products. As in the case of Gordon v Selico [1986], it is possible to make a misrepresentation by words or by conduct. However, it should be considered that representation is not a term. Moreover, the telephones supplied required tuning to particular frequencies, a task taking two minutes for each one. This aspect also indicates the presence of innominate terms (Knapp et al., 2012). However, under the circumstance in which the CEO of KSE signed the contract with UMS, there is no reference to any other document. In addition, KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt of the transaction without reading it, which represents a serious mistake that can be identified as negligence in lawful terms. The harm caused by the deci sion of KSE’s CEO to sign a contract with UMS is as a result of his carelessness. There is a failure to behave with the proper level of care required for the described circumstances (Poole, 2012). On the back of the receipt provided by UMS, the statement can be classified by the court as an exclusion clause because the provider of the mobile phones has directly excluded liability for contractual breach. In an attempt to analyse the exclusion clause as a term under the circumstance in which KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt without reading it, specific implications can be drawn. As a term in a contract, an exclusion clause indicates the purpose to limit or restrict the rights of the parties bound to the contract (Hillman, 2004). A true exclusion clause, as in the case of UMS, recognised a potential breach of contract, and then serves as an excuses liability for any potential breach. Therefore, it can be concluded that an exclusion clause was ‘incorporated’ into the contract with KSE. The effect of this term in the contract should be evaluated on the basis of incorporation (Elliott and Quinn, 2003). This means that UMS has actually incorporated an exclusion clause by signature (at the back of the receipt of the transaction provided to KSE). The fact that KSE’s CEO accepted the receipt and signed it means that the respective clause is considered part of the cont ract. Yet, the party representing the clause, UMS, has not taken any reasonable steps to bring it to the close attention of the second party in the contract (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Applying the legal controls that the court would use in assessing the validity of the term in the contract should refer to principles of strict literal interpretation and contra proferentem (Hillman, 2004). In order an exclusion clause to operate, it needs to cover the breach with an assumption of a potential breach of contract. In case there is a breach of contract, the specific type of liability which is emerging is also relevant in the process of interpretation by the court. There is strict liability involved, which arises as a result of a state of affairs in which the party at breach is not necessarily identified as responsible for the fault (Smits, 2005). However, the court needs to consider the case of liability for negligence, or in other words, liability arising as a result of fault. A common tendency demonstrated by the court would be to require the party which relies on the clause to have drafted it adequately in order to result in a situation where that party is exempted f rom the liability arising (Cauffman, 2013). In the presence of ambiguity, as it might be in the case of KSE and UMS, the court would most probably apply the legal control of strict literal interpretation against the party which extensively relies on the exclusion clause in the contract. In the process of assessing the validity of the exclusion clause in the contract, the court may also apply the legal control of contra proferentem (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). In case ambiguity persists even after attempts have been made to construe an exclusion clause with regards to its natural meaning, the court may decide to apply a rule identified as contra proferentem. This term implies that the clause needs to be construed against the party in the contract that imposed its initial inclusion, respectively UMS. In the context of negligence, the court would most probably take the approach that a party would enter into a contract that permits the second party to evade fault based liability (Cauffman, 2013).Law of TortLiability in Tort and Contractual LiabilityWhile discussing certain implications of liability, contrasting liability in tort with contractual liability is important. All activities initiated by individuals as well as organisations are regulated by law. Tort law repres ents a branch of the civil law, and it should be considered that any dispute in civil law is usually between private parties (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). As indicated in the previous section, strict liability illustrates a solid legal doctrine according to which a party is held responsible for the damages resulting by his or her actions. Strict liability is also applicable to tort law especially in cases involving product liability lawsuits (Okrent, 2014). In the context of tort law, strict liability refers to the process of imposing liability on a party or individual without a particular finding of fault. In case fault is found, the court would determine a situation known as negligence or tortuous intent (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). As a result, the plaintiff would need to prove the occurrence of the tort and the implied responsibility of the defendant. The objective of strict liability is to discourage any forms of reckless behaviour as well as irrelevant product development and manufacturing. Therefore, liability in tort refers to the duty of care along with the negligence of that duty. On the other hand, contractual liability is associated with a situation in which two or more parties promise specific things to each other (Okrent, 2014). Liability in tort and contractual liability are similar in the point that they are both civil wrongs, and the individual wronged sues in the court in order to obtain compensation. However, the m ain difference is that in a claim related to liability in tort, the defendant may not have been involved in any previous relationship or transaction with the claimant. On the contrary, in a claim of contractual liability, the main condition that should be met is that the defendant and claimant should be the parties representing the contract (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012).Case Study of King’s RestaurantIn an attempt to analyse the situation described in the case study of King’s Restaurant, it appears that it should be considered on the basis of tort of negligence. The claimants in this case, Carlos and Janet, need to prove certain elements to the court so as to provide a valid proof of negligence and claim damages (Okrent, 2014). These elements refer to proving that the restaurant owed them a strict duty of care; the restaurant breached that particular duty of care; and Carlos and Janet suffered damage resulting from the breach. The notion of the duty of care was establ ished in Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] in which the court enforced the decision that an individual may sue another person who caused them loss or damage even in the absence of contractual relationship. Yet, in the case of Carlos and Janet, it needs to be considered that even if the court proves negligence, the restaurant may have a defence that protects it from liability, or decreases the precise amount of damages it is liable for (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). Hence, it can be argued that there is tortuous liability action against the restaurant. There is a breach of a statutory duty in King’s Restaurant case study, as the direct consequence was harming a person, which gives rise to tortuous liability for the restaurant towards Carlos and Janet under the legal doctrine of negligence (Christie et al., 1997). However, the victim should be identified in the class of individuals protected by the statute. Another important condition related to the success of the tort suit is that the injury should be of the specific type that the statute intended to prevent. Thus, the claimants need to prove their claim on specific balance of probabilities. It is also important for Carlos and Janet to show that the damage suffered is not quite remote from the breach (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). It should be assumed that a duty of care existed in this case because King’s Restaurant is identified as an award-winning and very expensive English restaur ant, which directly brings the conclusion that the services provided by the restaurant should be at a superior level. The standard of care should be determined through expert testimony and through the consideration of applicable, professional standards in the industry. The harm in the case is mostly physical, which makes it a sufficient claim for negligence. The problem in the case study can be resolved if Carlos and Janet definitely consider the option of claiming tortuous liability against the restaurant (Christie et al., 1997).Case Study of Angelina and Christian AuctioneersIn this case, the legal principles of tort of professional negligence misstatement and vicarious liability can be applied. The tort of professional negligence misstatement refers to representing a fact, which is improperly and carelessly made. This claim is usually relied on by another party and results in their disadvantage (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). Vicarious liability presents a doctrine according to w hich an individual is responsible for the actions of another person because of a special relationship available between the parties, such as the one between an employer and an employee. Angelina has rights and remedies against Brad and Christian Auctioneers in connection with the incorrect advice given to her about the worth of the painting (Okrent, 2014). In the case, Angelina relies on the other party for their expertise, knowledge, and judgment. Moreover, the person who provided advice to Angelina, Brad, knew that the other party was relying on him and his judgment about the painting. It can be also argued that it was reasonable for Angelina in the presented circumstances to rely on Brad and Christian Auctioneers. Brad on the behalf of his organisation, Christian Auctioneers, has given a negligence misstatement regarding the painting’s value. His judgment was personal rather than professionally based (Hodgson and Lewthwaite, 2012). Angelina’s rights against Brad and Christian Auctioneers are based on the premise of the special relationship established between her and this organisation. In the process of examining the special relationship concept, an example can be observed in the case of Shaddock & Associates PTY Ltd v Parramatta City Council [1981], in which a solicitor acting on behalf of Shaddock established contact with the Parramatta City Council to seek advice regarding the potential impact on a property as a result of road widening proposals (Okrent, 2014). The council employees gave the solicitor a negligent misstatement, and as a result, Shaddock purchased the property and significant losses have been suffered. When applying the law in the case of Angelina, duty of care should be established in order to claim for negligence. It is important to consider the question of whether it was reasonably foreseeable that the actions of Brad and Christian Auctioneers would cause harm or loss to Angelina. Fu rthermore, it is essential to establish the presence of a physical or factual link between Angelina and Brad and Christian Auctioneers. It can be deduced that their relationship was physical considering that Angelina approached the company to give her a valuation of some antique furniture present at her flat (Christie et al., 1997). The court would also need to determine the vulnerability of the plaintiff, and it can be indicated that the vulnerability to Angelina was high because she was relying on Brad and Christian Auctioneers for their professional advice in order to make a sound decision (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). The court would need to consider the actual damages caused. Considering that Angelina sold a valuable painting of Rembrandt for only ?100 is indicative of the losses she suffered due to the incorrect advice given to her. Moreover, the principle of vicarious liability could also refer to this case (Horsey and Rackley, 2011). Vicarious liability is applicable because liability is attributed to Christian Auctioneers that has a responsibility for its employee, Brad, who negligently causes a loss to Angelina because of the incorrect advice provided to her. In other words, the employer is responsible for the actions of the employee. Therefore, this form of strict liability can be imposed on Christian Auctioneers due to the negligent conduct of its employees in the case of Angelina (Okrent, 2014).Possible Defences Available to Christian AuctioneersThere could be possible defences available to Christian Auctioneers. Such defences are mainly based on the assumption whether there is a contractual relationship between the parties (Okrent, 2014). An example of this aspect can be found in the case of Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1994], emphasising a statement of responsibility by an individual providing pr ofessional services along with reliance by the individual for whom the services were provided. Therefore, in the case of Angelina, it can be deduced that there was no special, contractual relationship between the parties (Christie et al., 1997). Angelina sought a free valuation, which may imply that there would not be liability for such type of information.ConclusionThis paper discussed essential aspects of contract law and tort law. The first part of the paper focused on describing the elements comprising a valid, legal contract along with differentiating the effects of common contracts (MacMillan and Stone, 2012). Details from two case studies were provided, namely from East Midlands Airways Airbus case and the case involving the supply of mobile phones. Important issues pertaining to contract law were discussed with the application of relevant law. The second part of the paper emphasised important principles of tort law by differentiating liability in tort and contractual liabili ty. Negligence liability was discussed with regards to the case study of King’s Restaurant. Specific details about tort of professional negligence misstatement and vicarious liability were provided in the case study of Angelina and Christian Auctioneers (Okrent, 2014). In conclusion, legal and business practitioners need to stay informed about valid and applicable law principles with regards to contract and negligence in order to adhere to professional standards of conducting appropriate business practices. References Byrne v Van Tienhoven [1980] CPD 344 Cauffman, C. (2013). ‘The Principle of Proportionality and European Contract Law’. Maastricht Faculty of Law Working Paper. Working Paper No. 2013-05. Christie, G. C., Meeks, J. E., Pryor, E. S., and Sanders, J. (1997). Cases and Materials on the Law of Torts. St. Paul, MN: West. Dickinson v Dodds [1876] Ch. D. 463 Donoghue v Stevenson [1932] UKHL 100 Elliott, C. and Quinn, F. (2003). Contract Law. London: Longman. Gordon v Selico [1986] HLR 219 Henderson v Merrett Syndicates Ltd [1994] UKHL 5 Hillman, R. A. (2004). Principles of Contract Law. St. Paul, MN: West. HK Fir Shipping v Kawasaki Kisen Kaisha [1962] EWCA 7 Hodgson, J. and Lewthwaite, J. (2012). Tort Law Textbook. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Horsey, K. and Rackley, E. (2011). Tort Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Knapp, C. L., Crystal, N. M., and Prince, H. G. (2012). Problems in Contract Law: Cases and Materials. New York: Wolters Kluwer Law & Business. MacMillan, C. and Stone, R. (2012). Elements of the Law of Contract. London: Stewart House. Okrent, C. (2014). Torts and Personal Injury Law. New York: Cengage Learning. Poole, J. (2012). Casebook on Contract Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Shaddock & Associates PTY Ltd v Parramatta City Council [1981] HCA 59 Shuey v US [1875] 92 US 73 Smits, J. M. (2005). ‘The Principles of European Contract Law and the Harmonization of Private Law in Europe’. Maastricht University Faculty of Law, pp. 567-590.

Battle of Zama in the Punic Wars

The Battle of Zama was the deciding engagement of the Second Punic War (218-201 BC) between Carthage and Rome and was fought in late October 202 BC. After a string of early Carthaginian victories in Italy, the Second Punic War settled into a stalemate with Hannibals armies in Italy unable to deliver a deathblow again the Romans. Recovering from these setbacks, Roman forces achieved some success in Iberia before launching an invasion of North Africa. Led by Scipio Africanus, this army engaged a Carthaginian force led by Hannibal at Zama in 202 BC. In the resulting battle, Scipio defeated his famous foe and forced Carthage to sue for peace. Fast Facts: Battle of Zama Conflict: Second Punic War (218-201 BC)Dates: 202 BCArmies Commanders:CarthageHannibalapprox. 36,000 infantry4,000 cavalry80 elephantsRomeScipio Africanus29,000 infantry6,100 cavalryCasualties:Carthage: 20-25,000 killed, 8,500-20,000 capturedRome Allies: 4,000-5,000 Background With the beginning of the Second Punic War in 218 BC, the Carthaginian general Hannibal boldly crossed the Alps and attacked into Italy. Achieving victories at Trebia (218 BC) and Lake Trasimene (217 BC), he swept aside armies led by  Tiberius Sempronius Longus and  Gaius Flaminius Nepos. In the wake of these triumphs, he marched south looting the country and attempting to force Romes allies to defect to Carthages side. Stunned and in crisis from these defeats, Rome appointed Fabius Maximus to deal with the Carthaginian threat.   Hannibal. Public Domain Avoiding battle with Hannibals army, Fabius raided the Carthaginian supply lines and practiced the form of attritional warfare that later bore his name. Rome soon proved unhappy with Fabius methods and he was replaced by the more aggressive  Gaius Terentius Varro and Lucius Aemilius Paullus. Moving to engage Hannibal, they were routed at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Following his victory, Hannibal spent the next several years attempting to build an alliance in Italy against Rome. As the war on the peninsula descended into a stalemate, Roman troops, led by Scipio Africanus, began having success in Iberia and captured large swaths of Carthaginian territory in the region. In 204 BC, after fourteen years of war, Roman troops landed in North Africa with the goal of directly attacking Carthage. Led by Scipio, they succeeded in defeating Carthaginian forces led by Hasdrubal Gisco and their Numidian allies commanded by Syphax at Utica and Great Plains (203 BC). With their situation precarious, the Carthaginian leadership sued for peace with Scipio. This offer was accepted by the Romans who offered moderate terms. While the treaty was being debated in Rome, those Carthaginians who favored continuing the war had Hannibal recalled from Italy. Scipio Africanus - detail of painting by Giovanni Battista Tiepolo, Scipio Africanus is shown releasing the nephew of the Prince of Nubia after he was captured by Roman soldiers. Walters Art Museum Carthage Resists During this same period, Carthaginian forces captured a Roman supply fleet in the Gulf of Tunes. This success, along with the return of Hannibal and his veterans from Italy, led to change of heart on the part of the Carthaginian senate. Emboldened, they elected to continue the conflict and Hannibal set about enlarging his army. Marching out with a total force of around 40,000 men and 80 elephants, Hannibal encountered Scipio near Zama Regia. Forming his men in three lines, Hannibal placed his mercenaries in first line, his new recruits and levies in the second, and his Italian veterans in the third. These men were supported by the elephants to the front and Numidian and Carthaginian cavalry on the flanks. Scipio's Plan To counter Hannibals army, Scipio deployed his 35,100 men in a similar formation consisting of three lines. The right wing was held by Numidian cavalry, led by Masinissa, while Laelius Roman horsemen were placed on the left flank. Aware that Hannibals elephants could be devastating on the attack, Scipio devised a new way to counter them. Though tough and strong, the elephants could not turn when they charged. Using this knowledge, he formed his infantry in separate units with gaps in between. These were filled with velites (light troops) which could move to allow the elephants to pass through. It was his goal to allow the elephants to charge through these gaps thus minimizing the damage they could inflict. Hannibal Defeated As anticipated, Hannibal opened the battle by ordering his elephants to charge the Roman lines. Moving forward, they were engaged by the Roman velites who drew them through the gaps in the Roman lines and out of the battle. In addition, Scipios cavalry blew large horns to frighten the elephants. With Hannibals elephants neutralized, he reorganized his infantry in a traditional formation and sent forward his cavalry. Attacking on both wings, the Roman and Numidian horsemen overwhelmed their opposition and pursued them from the field. Though displeased by his cavalrys departure, Scipio began advancing his infantry. This was met by an advance from Hannibal. While Hannibals mercenaries defeated the first Roman assaults, his men slowly began to be pushed back by Scipios troops. As the first line gave way, Hannibal would not allow it to pass back through the other lines. Instead, these men moved to the wings of the second line. Pressing forward, Hannibal struck with this force and a bloody fight ensued. Ultimately defeated, the Carthaginians fell back to the flanks of the third line. Extending his line to avoid being outflanked, Scipio pressed the attack against Hannibals best troops. With the battle surging back and forth, the Roman cavalry rallied and returned to the field. Charging the rear of Hannibals position, the cavalry caused his lines to break. Pinned between two forces, the Carthaginians were routed and driven from the field. Aftermath As with many battles in this period, exact casualties are not known. Some sources claim that Hannibals casualties numbered 20,000 killed and 20,000 taken prisoner, while the Romans lost around 2,500 killed and 4,000 wounded. Regardless of casualties, the defeat at Zama led to Carthage renewing its calls for peace. These were accepted by Rome, however the terms were harsher than those offered a year earlier. In addition to losing the majority of its empire, a substantial war indemnity was imposed and Carthage was effectively destroyed as a power.